I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
{Summary}
-- During current epidemiological week (from 23 to 29 Oct. 2025), two new human cases of infection with West Nile Virus have been reported.
-- The cumulative number of confirmed cases this season so far rose to 773 (they were 771 last week), of these:
- 367 were West Nile Neuroinvasive Disease (WNND): 17 in Piedmont, 56 Lombardy, 35 Veneto, 4 Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 1 Liguria, 30 Emilia-Romagna, 11 Tuscany, 1 Marche, 87 Latium, 2 Molise, 83 Campania, 2 Apulia, 2 Basilicata, 5 Calabria, 3 Sicily, 28 Sardinia,
- 56 were asymptomatic cases detected in blood donors,
- 339 were West Nile Fever cases (of which: 1 imported from Kenya, 1 from Egypt and 1 from Maldives),
- 3 asymptomatic cases,
- 8 unspecified cases.
-- Among confirmed cases, 72 fatalities have been recorded: 7 in Piedmont, 9 Lombardy, 1 Veneto, 2 Emilia-Romagna, 1 Marche, 19 Latium, 29 Campania, 2 Calabria, 1 Sicily, 1 Sardinia.
- The Case-Fatality Rate in WNND cases is 19.6% (it was 20% in 2018, 14% in 2024).
-- Since the start of the epidemic season, 11 confirmed human cases of Usutu virus infection were reported: 2 in Piedmont, 3 Lombardy, 2 Veneto, 1 Tuscany, 3 Latium.
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Source: High Institute of Health, https://www.epicentro.iss.it/westnile/bollettino/Bollettino_WND_2025_16.pdf
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
ABSTRACT
Subtype H3N2 influenza A viruses (IAVs), which emerged in 1968 to cause a pandemic, have shown continual circulation and adaptation that has necessitated frequent updates of candidate vaccine viruses. Here, we sought to determine how genetic changes in the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase of 21 antigenically distinct H3N2 IAVs isolated from 1968 to 2019 correlate with mammalian fitness and adaptation. We found a surge of adaptation between 1997 and 2002, resulting in the emergence of A/Fujian/411/2002 (H3N2) and poor vaccine efficacy, leading to an epidemic during the 2003–2004 season. This surge was characterized by a large reduction in binding to mammalian-type α2,6-linked sialic acids and increased infectivity and replication kinetics in humanized Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. HA glycosylation also increased most rapidly from 1968 to 2004 and then plateaued. Symptomatic infections were only evident in mice following inoculation with viruses isolated in the 1970s and A/Aichi/2/1968 (H3N2), which was the most pathogenic. More recent viruses did not cause any detectable symptoms, except for A/Sydney/5/1997 (H3N2), which caused some weight loss. The post-2002 shift to α2,6-linked sialic acid binding, coupled with reduced pathogenicity in mammalian models, underscores H3N2 adaptation to human circulation without affecting immunogenicity, which is a critical consideration for vaccine design. Overall, our data revealed that a surge of mammalian adaptation from 1997 to 2002 gave rise to A/Fujian/411/2002 (H3N2), with subsequent viruses showing more hallmarks of mammalian adaptation, such as increased binding to cells expressing α2,6-linked sialic acids and reduced mammalian pathogenicity.
Source: Journal of Virology, https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/jvi.01329-25?af=R
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
ABSTRACT
Systemic spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) to extrapulmonary tissues has been observed following acute infections. Autopsy studies further indicate tissue-specific virus diversity, including in immune-privileged sites. Questions remain on the viral dynamics leading to the tissue tropism of SARS-CoV-2, including evolutionary trajectories and functional adaptations that could impact persistence and transmission. In this study, we characterized SARS-CoV-2 genomes from 27 distinct tissues collected from an autopsy case where the patient had a primary immune deficiency. We identified tissue-specific virus genotypes, in some instances coexisting within the same sites, with mutations primarily in the receptor-binding domain of the spike protein. Protein simulations and isolation of infectious virus indicate combinations of spike substitutions that would lead to increased protein stability and stronger binding of the virus to host cells. This highlights the importance of studying patients with weakened immune responses where potential tissue reservoirs provide an environment permissive for SARS-CoV-2 evolution and diversification.
Source: Journal of Virology, https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/jvi.00857-25?af=R
____
I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
ABSTRACT
An increase in the number of human cases of influenza A/H5N1 infection in the USA has raised concerns about the pandemic potential of the virus. Pre-existing population immunity is a key determinant for risk assessment and pandemic potential for any virus. Antibody responses against the bovine A/H5N1 hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins were measured among a population of influenza-vaccinated or influenza-infected individuals. Modest titers of bovine A/H5N1 HA-binding antibodies and low to undetectable neutralizing antibody titers were detected in a cohort of 73 individuals. Conversely, bovine A/H5N1 NA-binding and neuraminidase-inhibiting antibody titers were comparable to those against a human A/H1N1 NA at baseline. Seasonal influenza vaccination failed to significantly increase antibody titers against both HA and NA glycoproteins of bovine A/H5N1. Recent infection with human A/H1N1 but not A/H3N2 viruses induced significant increases in bovine A/H5N1-neutralizing antibody, as well as increases in NA-binding and NA-inhibiting antibodies to bovine A/H5N1 NA. While the degree of protection afforded by these A/H5N1 cross-reactive antibodies is not known, incorporating NA or enhancing current seasonal vaccine formulations to increase NA-specific antibody titers may increase antibody breadth and protection against both seasonal and pandemic influenza viruses.
Source: mBio, https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/mbio.02145-25?af=R
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
September 2025
The development of influenza candidate vaccine viruses (CVVs), coordinated by WHO, remains an essential component of the overall global strategy for influenza pandemic preparedness. Selection and development of CVVs are the first steps towards timely vaccine production and do not imply a recommendation for initiating manufacture. National authorities may consider the use of one or more of these CVVs for pilot lot vaccine production, clinical trials and other pandemic preparedness purposes based on their assessment of public health risk and need.
Zoonotic influenza viruses continue to be identified and evolve both antigenically and genetically, leading to the need for additional CVVs for pandemic preparedness purposes.
Changes in the antigenic and genetic characteristics of these viruses relative to existing CVVs and their potential risks to public health justify the need to develop new CVVs. This document summarizes the antigenic and genetic characteristics of recent zoonotic influenza viruses and related viruses circulating in animals{1} that are relevant to CVV updates.
Institutions interested in receiving these CVVs should contact WHO at gisrs-whohq@who.int or the institutions listed in announcements published on the WHO website.{2}
Influenza A(H5)
Since their emergence in 1997, high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5) viruses of the A/goose/Guangdong/1/96 haemagglutinin (HA) lineage have become enzootic in many countries, have infected wild birds and continue to cause outbreaks in poultry and sporadic human and other mammalian infections across a wide geographic area.
A(H5) HA gene segments have paired with a variety of neuraminidase (NA) subtypes (N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N8 or N9). These viruses have diversified genetically and antigenically, leading to the need for multiple CVVs. This summary provides updates on the characterization of A/goose/Guangdong/1/96-lineage A(H5) viruses and the status of the development of influenza A(H5) CVVs.
Influenza A(H5) activity from 25 February to 22 September 2025
Since 2003, 17 A(H5), 7 A(H5N8), 93 A(H5N6) and 979 A(H5N1) human infections or detections have been reported.
Since 25 February 2025, 24 human infections with A/goose/Guangdong/1/96-lineage viruses have been reported to WHO.
A/goose/Guangdong/1/96-lineage A(H5) viruses have been detected in both domestic and wild birds with spillover to mammals in many countries (...).
Genetic and antigenic characteristics of influenza A(H5) viruses
Twenty-four new human infections or detections with A/goose/Guangdong/1/96-lineage viruses were reported.
Most infected individuals had recent exposure to birds. The human cases included 4 A(H5N1) clade 2.3.2.1a infections, 2 in Bangladesh and 2 fatal infections in India.
Bangladesh reported additional single A(H5) and A(H5N1) cases where clade designations could not be determined due to lack of sequence data.
The HA of the 2.3.2.1a viruses from Bangladesh and India had up to 1 and 7 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Victoria/149/2024 CVV, respectively.
Antigenic analyses of the viruses from the human cases are pending, but a genetically related virus from poultry in Bangladesh reacted well to post-infection ferret antisera raised against the A/Victoria/149/2024 CVV.
Two human cases of A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection were detected; 1 in China in an individual with recent travel history to Viet Nam, and 1 fatal case in Mexico.
The A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus from China had an HA with 4 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Jiangsu/ NJ210/2023 CVV. The virus from the human case in Mexico had an HA with 3 amino acid substitutions
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relative to the A/Astrakhan/3212/2020 and A/Ezo red fox/Hokkaido/1/2022 CVVs, however, 1 of the substitutions added a putative glycosylation site in antigenic site B. Antigenic analyses are pending.
Cambodia reported fifteen human cases of A(H5N1) of which 6 were fatal. Viruses from twelve cases were confirmed as belonging to A(H5N1) clade 2.3.2.1e; clade designations could not be determined for the other 3 due to lack of sequence data.
One human infection with an A(H5N1) clade 2.3.2.1e virus was identified in Viet Nam.
The HAs of the human viruses from Cambodia and Viet Nam had, at most, 4 amino acid differences relative to the A/Cambodia/SVH240441/2024 CVV. Ferret antisera raised against A/Cambodia/SVH240441/2024 and the A/Cambodia/SVH240441/2024 CVV reacted well with virus isolated from the human case detected in Viet Nam but less well with a virus from a Cambodian human case.
Ferret antisera raised against A/duck/Vietnam/NCVD-1584/2012 and the clade 2.3.2.1f A/chicken/ Ghana/20/2015 CVV reacted well with the Cambodian virus. Antigenic characterisation of other viruses isolated from human cases in Cambodia is pending.
A(H5) viruses from birds and non-human mammals belonged to the following clades Clade 2.3.2.1a viruses were detected in poultry and wild birds in Bangladesh and in poultry, wild birds, captive tigers and leopards, and domestic cats in India.
Circulation of viruses with clade 2.3.2.1a HAs in these countries has continued despite the introduction of clade 2.3.4.4b viruses.
The HA of viruses detected in poultry in Bangladesh and India had up to 1 and 5 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Victoria/149/2024 CVV, respectively. No antigenic data are available for these viruses. Viruses collected in the previous reporting period had HAs genetically similar to either the A/Victoria/149/2024 or A/duck/Bangladesh/17D1012/2018 CVVs and reacted well to post-infection ferret antisera raised against at least 1 of the available clade 2.3.2.1a CVVs.
Clade 2.3.4.4b viruses were detected in birds in Africa, North and South America, Antarctica, Asia and Europe. A(H5N1) viruses circulated in birds in most regions; A(H5N6) viruses were detected in poultry in China; A(H5N5) viruses were detected in Europe and North America; A(H5N8) viruses continued to circulate in Egypt; and A(H5N2) viruses were detected in wild birds in Japan.
Infections in wild and captive mammals have been reported in many countries and the outbreak in dairy cattle continued in the USA.
The HAs of A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b viruses detected in birds in Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil were similar to viruses circulating in the region during previous reporting periods with up to 6 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/American wigeon/South Carolina/22-000345-001/2021 CVV. No antigenic data were available.
Although some heterogeneity was observed, A(H5N1) viruses from birds and mammals in Bangladesh, Japan and the USA and multiple countries in Africa and Europe generally reacted well with post-infection ferret antisera raised against at least 1 of the available clade 2.3.4.4b CVVs; a virus from Crozet Islands and an increasing number of viruses from Egypt reacted less well.
The A(H5N6) and A(H5N1) viruses identified in China had 2 to 14 HA amino acid substitutions relative to clade 2.3.4.4b CVVs and most reacted well with post-infection ferret antisera raised against CVV-like viruses.
The HAs of A(H5N5) viruses detected in Europe and North America were genetically related to viruses detected in previous reporting periods and reacted well to ferret antisera raised against at least 1 of the available clade 2.3.4.4b CVVs.
Clade 2.3.2.1e viruses were detected in poultry in Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam. The HAs of these viruses were similar to viruses detected in previous periods in the region, with 1 to 9 amino acid substitutions relative to the recommended clade 2.3.2.1e A/Cambodia/ SVH240441/2024 CVV. Antigenic analyses are pending.
Clade 2.3.2.1g viruses were detected in poultry in multiple islands of the Republic of Indonesia. These viruses had HAs genetically similar to those of viruses circulating in the previous reporting period (...). Currently, there is no CVV proposed for this clade. These viruses accumulated many amino acid substitutions when compared to the sequences of CVVs of closely related clades.
Antigenic analyses showed these viruses reacted poorly with post-infection ferret antisera raised against the clade 2.3.2.1e A/duck/Vietnam/ NCVD-1584/2012 and the clade 2.3.2.1a A/duck/Bangladesh/17D1012/2018 CVVs.
Some of the recent Indonesian viruses reacted well to post-infection ferret antiserum raised against the clade 2.3.2.1f A/chicken/ Ghana/20/2015 CVV.
Influenza A(H5) candidate vaccine viruses
Based on current genetic, antigenic and epidemiologic data, no new CVVs are proposed. The available and pending A(H5) CVVs are listed in Table 2.
Influenza A(H9N2)
Influenza A(H9N2) viruses are enzootic in poultry in many parts of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, with the majority of viruses belonging to either the B or G HA lineage.{3}
Since the late 1990s, when the first human infection was identified, sporadic detections of A(H9N2) viruses in humans and pigs have been reported, with associated mild disease in most human cases and no evidence for sustained human-to-human transmission.
Influenza A(H9N2) activity from 25 February to 22 September 2025
Twenty-four human infections with A(H9N2) viruses have been identified in China, 4 with disease onset dates in the previous reporting period.
A(H9N2) viruses were detected in poultry in multiple countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle East and in an illegally imported poultry product in Japan.
Genetic and antigenic characteristics of influenza A(H9N2) viruses
The HAs of the 15 sequenced human viruses belonged to clade B4.7. Fourteen of these viruses belonged to clade B4.7.2 and had up to 25 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Anhui-Tianjiaan/11086/2022 CVV.
The other human virus had a clade B4.7.4 HA with 14 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Anhui-Lujiang/39/2018 CVV.
The majority of human viruses tested antigenically reacted well to post-infection ferret antisera raised against the A/Anhui-Tianjiaan/11086/2022 or the A/Anhui-Lujiang/39/2018 CVV.
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A(H9N2) viruses from birds belonged to the following clades: A Clade B4.6 virus was detected in an imported poultry product in Japan. The HA of this virus was genetically similar to viruses previously reported in China, Lao PDR and Singapore. There is currently no CVV for clade B4.6, but the virus reacted well to post-infection ferret antisera raised against both the clade G5.5 A/Oman/2747/2019 and clade B-like A/chicken/Hong Kong/G9/97 CVVs.
Clade B4.7 viruses were detected in poultry in Cambodia and Viet Nam. The HAs of these viruses continued to diversify genetically and accumulated up to 21 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Anhui-Tianjiaan/11086/2022 CVV. No antigenic data were available from these viruses.
Clade G5.5 viruses were detected in poultry in Israel, Nigeria and Togo. Moreover, viruses belonging to clade G5.5 were identified in poultry in Mauritania and Senegal, although from samples collected in the previous reporting period. The HAs of the viruses from Israel had accumulated 8 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Oman/2747/2019 CVV. The HAs of viruses from Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal and Togo were genetically related to viruses circulating in West Africa in the previous period and had up to 12 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Oman/2747/2019 CVV.
Ferret antiserum raised against the A/Oman/2747/2019 CVV reacted well with a virus from Togo. No antigenic data were available for the other G5.5 viruses.
Clade G5.6 viruses were detected in poultry in Egypt. These viruses had up to 35 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Oman/2747/2019 CVV. Ferret antisera raised against either the A/Hong Kong/G9/97 or A/Oman/2747/2019 CVVs, however, reacted well with the majority of the viruses tested.
Clade G5.7 viruses were detected in poultry in Bangladesh and India, although from samples collected during the previous reporting period. The HAs of viruses identified in India were genetically related to those circulating during previous reporting periods and had accumulated up to 28 amino acid substitutions relative to the A/Bangladesh/0994/2011 CVV with 8 amino acid substitutions occurring in putative antigenic sites.
Ferret antiserum raised against the A/Bangladesh/0994/2011 CVV reacted well with the majority of Bangladesh viruses tested, however, some viruses with mutations in putative antigenic sites reacted less well.
Clade Y8 viruses were detected in poultry in France and Madagascar, and in wild birds in Europe and North America. The HA sequences of viruses detected in Madagascar were similar to previously reported viruses in the country. The HA sequence of the virus from France was genetically similar to viruses previously reported in Europe. No antigenic data were available for these viruses and there is currently no CVV for this clade.
Influenza A(H9N2) candidate vaccine viruses
Based on the available antigenic, genetic and epidemiologic data, no new CVVs are proposed. The available and pending A(H9N2) CVVs are listed in Table 3.
Influenza A(H10)
A(H10) viruses are frequently detected in poultry in many regions of the world and are considered endemic in poultry in China, with rare human infections reported.
Prior to this reporting period, 4 A(H10N3), 1 A(H10N5) and 3 A(H10N8) human infections were detected in China and A(H10N7) viruses were detected in individuals with conjunctivitis or mild upper respiratory tract symptoms in Australia (n=2) and Egypt (n=2).
Influenza A(H10) activity from 25 February to 22 September 2025
Two human A(H10N3) virus infections were identified in China.
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Antigenic and genetic characteristics of influenza A(H10N3) viruses
One of the human A(H10N3) viruses was sequenced and had an HA that was genetically similar to human A(H10N3) viruses from 2024, maintaining avian virus signatures at key receptor binding sites. As with previous viruses, the recent A(H10N3) virus had some gene segments derived from A(H9N2) viruses. No virus was recovered from the clinical material.
A(H10N3), A(H10N4) and an A(H10N8) virus were detected in ducks and chickens in Fujian and Jiangxi Provinces of China, some with collection dates during the previous reporting period. The HAs of these viruses formed subtype-specific phylogenetic clades with those of the A(H10N3) viruses being genetically similar to the human A(H10N3) viruses.
A(H10N7) viruses, genetically similar to those detected in previous periods, were detected in ducks in Cambodia.
Influenza A(H10N3) candidate vaccine viruses
Based on the available genetic and epidemiologic data, no new CVVs are proposed. The pending A(H10N3) CVV is listed in Table 4.
Influenza A(H1)v{4}
Influenza A(H1) viruses are enzootic in swine populations in most regions of the world. The genetic and antigenic characteristics of the viruses circulating in different regions are diverse. Viruses isolated from human infections with swine influenza A(H1) viruses are designated as A(H1) variant ((H1)v) viruses and have been previously detected in the Americas, Asia and Europe.
Influenza A(H1)v activity from 25 February to 22 September 2025
One case of infection with an A(H1N1)v virus was detected in Germany. Multiple clades of A(H1) viruses were detected in swine populations globally (...).
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Antigenic and genetic characteristics of influenza A(H1N1)v viruses
The A(H1N1)v virus case from Germany was sequenced and had an HA belonging to clade 1C.2.2 similar to other 1C.2.2 viruses detected in swine in the region. The HA had 27 amino acid substitutions compared to the clade 1C.2.2 CVV, A/Hessen/47/2020. No antigenic data were available.
Influenza A(H1)v candidate vaccine viruses
Based on the available antigenic, genetic and epidemiologic data, no new A(H1)v CVVs are proposed. The available and pending A(H1)v CVVs are listed in Table 6.
Influenza A(H3N2)v
Influenza A(H3N2) viruses with diverse genetic and antigenic characteristics are enzootic in swine populations in most regions of the world. Human infections with influenza A(H3N2)v viruses originating from swine have been previously documented in the Americas, Asia, Australia and Europe.
Influenza A(H3N2)v activity from 25 February to 22 September 2025
No cases of infection with A(H3N2)v viruses were detected in this reporting period. A(H3N2) viruses were detected in swine in Canada, France, Italy, Portugal, Russian Federation and the USA (Table 7).
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Influenza A(H3N2)v candidate vaccine viruses
Based on the available antigenic, genetic and epidemiologic data, no new CVVs are proposed. The available A(H3N2)v CVVs are listed in Table 8
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Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement goes to the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS) which provides the mechanism for detection and monitoring of zoonotic influenza viruses. We thank the National Influenza Centres of GISRS who contributed information, clinical specimens and viruses, and associated data; WHO collaborating centres of GISRS for their in-depth characterisation and analysis of viruses and preparation of CVVs; WHO Essential Regulatory Laboratories of GISRS; and WHO H5 Reference Laboratories for their complementary analyses and preparation of CVVs. We acknowledge the WOAH/FAO Network of Expertise on Animal Influenza (OFFLU) laboratories for their in-depth characterization and comprehensive analysis of viruses and other national public and veterinary health institutions for contributing information and viruses. We also acknowledge the GISAID Global Data Science Initiative for the EpiFluTM database, and other sequence databases which were used to share gene sequences and associated information.
{1} For information relevant to other notifiable influenza virus infections in animals refer to https://wahis.woah.org/#/home
{3} See https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/8/23-1176_article
{4} Standardization of terminology for the influenza virus variants infecting humans: Update (https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/influenza/global-influenza-surveillance-and-response-system/nomenclature/standardization_of_terminology_influenza_virus_variants_update.pdf?sfvrsn=d201f1d5_6).
Source: World Health Organization, Weekly Epidemiological Record (WER), https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/af989289-7535-4a61-89b9-5db72aa5e829/content
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Two Western Marsh Harrier wild birds in Burgas Region.
Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6955
____
I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
A fattening duck holding in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Region.
Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6959
____
I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
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A wild bird belonging to the Common Goldeneye Species.
Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6956
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Highlights
• This Situation report will now be published monthly.
• All clades of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) continue to circulate. When mpox outbreaks are not rapidly contained and human-to-human transmission is not interrupted, there is a risk of sustained community transmission.
• In September 2025, 42 countries, across all WHO regions, reported a total of 3135 confirmed cases, including 12 deaths (case fatality ratio [CFR] 0.4%). More than 80% of these cases were reported in the African Region. Four regions (African Region, Eastern Mediterranean Region, Region of the Americas, and the Western Pacific) observed a declining trend in confirmed cases reported per month, while the European and South-East Asian regions observed an increase in cases in September 2025.
• Seventeen countries in Africa have experienced ongoing active transmission of mpox in the last six weeks (14 Sep – 19 Oct 2025), with 2862 confirmed cases, including 17 deaths (CFR 0.6%) reported during this period. Countries reporting the highest number of cases in this period are the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Kenya and Ghana; with upward trends in Kenya and Liberia, sustained declining trends in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and very early indications of a downward trend in Ghana.
• Since the last edition of this report, Malaysia, Namibia, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain have reported detection of clade Ib monkeypox virus (MPXV) for the first time.
• New imported cases of mpox due to clade Ib MPXV detected among travellers have been reported in Belgium, Canada, Germany, Italy, Qatar and Spain.
• Six countries outside Central and East Africa have reported clade Ib MPXV cases among individuals without travel links, indicating local circulation of the virus in Italy, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and the United States of America. In addition to countries in Africa, these countries are now also classified as experiencing community transmission of clade Ib MPXV.
• Since the last report, at least five cases of mpox due to clade Ib MPXV have been detected among individuals who self-identify as men who have sex with men. These cases provide the first evidence of previously undetected circulation, of this virus strain within this at-risk population, in which only clade IIb MPXV had been reported since 2022, and across different regions.
• In light of expanding community transmission of clade Ib MPXV and its detection among men who have sex with men, WHO currently assesses the public health risk as moderate for men who have sex with men and low for the general population in contexts outside historically endemic areas.
(...)
Source: World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/multi-country-outbreak-of-mpox--external-situation-report--59---30-october-2025
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Abstract
Recently, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A (H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b viruses have caused mass mortality events in seabirds worldwide, raising concern for long-lived species with low reproductive rates. Using individual-level data from the 2022 mass mortality event in northwestern European Sandwich terns (Thalasseus sandvicensis), we show that older individuals were disproportionately more affected, while no sex bias was observed. This age-specific mortality likely removed the most experienced individuals from the population. Our findings highlight a previously underappreciated mechanism through which HPAI outbreaks may impair the resilience of long-lived avian populations.
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
Funder Information Declared
German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN)
Federal Ministry for the Environment, Climate Action, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMUKN)
Source: BioRxIV, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.10.30.685500v1
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Abstract
Background:
Monitoring antigenic drift in human influenza A viruses is essential for vaccine strain selection and ensuring protection against circulating strains. Antigenic drift is traditionally assessed using ferret antisera, which provide monospecific responses, and human vaccinee sera, which reflect exposure to multiple antigens. In this study we evaluated the pig as an alternative source of antisera to study antigenic drift compared to immune responses in ferrets and humans. We included seasonal influenza A(H1N1pdm09) human viruses that had shown different antigenic characteristics when using ferret or human antisera.
Methods:
Pairs of pigs were inoculated with six human A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses circulating between 2019 and 2023, a period of marked antigenic drift. Pig and ferret antisera were analysed by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and virus neutralization (VN) assays.
Results:
Pigs were successfully infected with all strains, shedding virus and producing antibody responses, confirming their susceptibility to human influenza A viruses. Antigenic reactivity of pig antisera was qualitatively comparable to ferret antisera in both HI and VN assays, although maximum homologous antibody titres were significantly higher in ferrets. The antisera raised against viruses in circulation in 2019 and before, exempified by A/Guangdong-Maonan/SWL1536/2019, clade 5a.1, were clearly differentiated by both ferret and pig antisera from those in clade 5a.2 and its derivatives that became predominant.
Conclusions:
Ferrets and pigs showed comparable responses and both distinguished clade 5a.1 from clade 5a.2. However, neither model recognised antigenically drifted variants from 2019/2022, including subclades 5a.2 C, 5a.2a C.1/C.1.9, and .5a.2a.1 C.1.1/D, which were distinguishable using human post-vaccination antisera.
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
Funder Information Declared
Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, https://ror.org/00cwqg982, BB/X511134/1 , BBS/E/PI/230002A, BBS/E/PI/230002B, BBS/E/PI/23NB0004, BBS/E/PI/23NB0003, BB/Y007298/1
Medical Research Council, https://ror.org/03x94j517, CC1114
Cancer Research UK, CC1114
Source: BioRxIV, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.10.30.685573v1
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Key Points
-- Question: Have asymptomatic infections with highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus been reported in humans?
-- Findings: This scoping review of published reports through August 25, 2025, identified 10 reports of 18 cases of asymptomatic infection with A(H5N1) virus, including 2 cases with molecular and serologic confirmation and 16 cases with molecular confirmation alone. Symptom ascertainment methods varied among reported cases.
-- Meaning: Asymptomatic human avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infections have been infrequently reported, with most lacking serologic confirmation; prospective surveillance studies with serial respiratory and serum sampling and detailed symptom monitoring for persons with high-risk exposures could provide data to inform future public health responses.
Abstract
Importance
Since 1997, more than 1000 infections with highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus among humans have been reported globally. Given ongoing A(H5N1) outbreaks in animals, understanding the frequency of A(H5N1) virus infections among asymptomatic persons can inform public health risk assessments and infection prevention guidance.
Objective
To identify and characterize reported cases of asymptomatic A(H5N1) virus infection among humans with confirmation by both molecular testing of 1 or more respiratory specimens and 1 or more serum specimens meeting World Health Organization criteria (molecularly and serologically confirmed [MSC]) or molecular confirmation (MC) alone.
Evidence Review
MEDLINE, Embase, Global Health, Cochrane, Scopus, Virtual Health Library, and Europe PubMed Central were searched for publication through August 25, 2025. Articles for full-text screening were evaluated by 2 investigators. Studies published through August 25, 2025, were included if they reported a confirmed A(H5N1) virus infection that met MSC or MC criteria and had a full-text report in English. Articles were excluded if they reported results from A(H5N1) serologic testing alone, serosurveys, or other immunologic studies.
Findings
Of 1567 unique reports that underwent title or abstract screening, 42 were selected for full-text screening, of which 10 met inclusion criteria (3 reports about 2 MSC cases and 7 reports about 16 MC cases). The 2 MSC cases occurred among adults in Pakistan and Vietnam who were identified by investigations of household contacts of index A(H5N1) case patients; 1 case patient also had exposure to A(H5N1) virus–infected chickens as the possible infection source and 1 is thought to have been infected through human-to-human transmission. Neither MSC case patient used personal protective equipment. Of 16 reported MC cases (14 adults, 2 children), 11 were identified by enhanced surveillance of persons exposed to A(H5N1) virus–infected poultry (8 in Bangladesh, 2 in Spain, and 1 in the UK) and the remaining 5 MC cases (3 in Vietnam, 2 in Cambodia) were identified by investigations of household contacts of index A(H5N1) case patients.
Conclusions and Relevance
Asymptomatic human infections with A(H5N1) virus have been infrequently reported, with most cases identified through enhanced surveillance or household contact investigations of persons with known exposure. Robust data collection is needed from persons with possible asymptomatic A(H5N1) virus infection to inform future public health responses.
Source: JAMA Network Open, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2840680
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Abstract
Background
Changes in the vaccine advisory process in the United States have disrupted immunization guidance, which reinforces the need for independent evidence review to inform decisions regarding immunization for respiratory viruses during the 2025–2026 season.
Methods
We conducted a systematic review of U.S.-licensed immunizations against coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and influenza. We searched databases on PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science for updates of the most recent review by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Evidence-to-Recommendations for each disease, which was performed during the 2023–2024 period. Outcomes included vaccine efficacy and effectiveness against hospitalization, other clinical end points, and safety.
Results
Of 17,263 identified references, 511 studies met the inclusion criteria. Covid-19 mRNA vaccines against the XBB.1.5 subvariant had pooled vaccine effectiveness against hospitalization of 46% (95% confidence interval [CI], 34 to 55; from cohort studies) and 50% (95% CI, 43 to 57; from case–control studies) among adults and 37% (95% CI, 29 to 44) among immunocompromised adults. In a case–control study, vaccines against the KP.2 subvariant showed an effectiveness of 68% (95% CI, 42 to 82). Maternal RSV vaccination (for infant protection), nirsevimab for infants, and RSV vaccines in adults who were 60 years of age or older showed vaccine effectiveness of 68% or more against hospitalization. Influenza vaccination had a pooled vaccine effectiveness of 48% (95% CI, 39 to 55) in adults between the ages of 18 and 64 years and 67% (95% CI, 58 to 75) in children against hospitalization. Safety profiles were consistent with previous evaluations. The diagnosis of myocarditis associated with Covid-19 vaccines occurred at rates of 1.3 to 3.1 per 100,000 doses in male adolescents, with lower risk associated with longer dosing intervals. The RSVpreF vaccine was associated with 18.2 excess cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome per million doses in older adults; a significant association with preterm birth was not observed when the vaccine was administered at 32 to 36 weeks’ gestation.
Conclusions
Ongoing peer-reviewed evidence supports the safety and effectiveness of immunizations against Covid-19, RSV, and influenza during the 2025–2026 season. (Funded by the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy and the Alumbra Innovations Foundation.)
Source: The New England Journal of Medicine, https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa2514268?query=TOC
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 has been infecting dairy herds in the U.S. since its initial incursion into cows in early 2024. Although national strategies have aimed to detect affected herds, the best way to surveil herds for the H5N1 virus has not been formally studied and we also do not understand herd-level patterns of infection. To understand infection patterns of H5N1 in dairy herds over time, we conducted early surveillance of non-affected farms in California in the Fall of 2024 in an observational study. Daily bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were submitted from each herd and tested for influenza A (IAV) via rRt-PCR. In a subset of herds, IAV testing of multiple excretion types from cattle of different classes and pen-level daily milk was also completed soon after BTM detection. Daily detections of IAV occurred in BTM for a minimum of 33 days, with some herds continuing to have detection beyond a 75-day window. BTM Ct nadirs were seen between 1-3 weeks of detection. In herds that were tested, virus was detected in the milk from all pens of cattle within a very short time frame after BTM detection, or prior to the initiation of pen level sampling. A very low percentage (2.8%) of individual cow samples tested positive for IAV when collected soon after BTM detection, and although the virus was found in all excretion types, a majority of positive samples were from milk. This suggests that BTM may be the best early indicator of herd infection, and that movement of the virus to all lactating pens of cattle after herd incursion is relatively quick. These results also suggest that surveillance strategies with a long interval between BTM testing days may miss herds with short infection windows. Because most herds experienced test days where some submitted BTM samples had virus detected while others did not, and virus was detected in pen level milk samples when the BTM from the herd had become test negative, this work also highlights the necessity of studying the test sensitivity of IAV rRt-PCR detection in aggregate milk samples.
Competing Interest Statement
The authors have declared no competing interest.
Funding Statement
This project was completed using Federal funds provided through the United States Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Agreement 25-9419-0731 and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, under Contract No. 75N93021C00016.
Source: MedRxIV, https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.10.26.25338833v1
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Abstract
Since 2020, high pathogenicity avian influenza virus (HPAIV) infections in wild birds have been frequently reported. Because HPAIV infection has occasionally caused outbreaks in captive rare birds, application of antiviral drugs for treatment purposes against them has been considered from the perspective of conservation medicine. In this study, the therapeutic efficacy of baloxavir marboxil (BXM) was evaluated using a duck model to help establish the post-infection treatment for rare birds. Sixteen four-week-old ducks were divided into four groups and intranasally inoculated with the HPAIV strain A/crow/Hokkaido/0103B065/2022 (H5N1). BXM was orally administered once daily at doses of 12.5, 2.5, 0.5, and 0 mg/kg to each of the four groups from 2 to 6 days post-infection. Blood samples were collected at 2, 8, and 24 hours after the initial BXM administration to measure the plasma concentrations of its active form, baloxavir acid (BXA). All ducks were monitored until 14 days post-infection, and their oral and cloacal swabs were collected for virus recovery. All eight ducks administered with 12.5 or 2.5 mg/kg of BXM survived, demonstrating a significant reduction in virus recovery compared to the 0 mg/kg group. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis of BXA suggested that parameters such as Cmax and AUC0–24hr were correlated with the suppression of virus shedding. These findings demonstrated that BXM administration within 48 hours post-HPAIV infection in ducks effectively reduced mortality and virus shedding. The comparison of PK parameters may help estimate efficient BXM dosing strategies in rare birds.
Competing Interest Statement
This study was supported by a collaborative research project between Hokkaido University and Shionogi & Co., Ltd. M.S., R.D.O, H.O., and T.S. are employees of Shionogi & Co., Ltd. M.M. is a former employee of Shionogi & Co., Ltd. These affiliations did not influence the study design, data collection, analysis, or interpretation. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.
Funder Information Declared
Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency, JPMEERF20254004
Japan Science and Technology Agency, JPMJSP2119
Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, https://ror.org/004rtk039, JP223fa627005, JP24wm000125008
Source: BioRxIV, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.10.24.684283v1
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
Last updated 27 October 2025
Latest update
UKHSA is aware of small numbers of locally-acquired cases of clade Ib mpox in the USA, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Portugal which have no connection to countries with known clade Ib mpox transmission.
This suggests there is now community transmission of clade Ib mpox globally. Most of the new cases identified in Europe and the USA have been in gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men, a population in which clade Ib mpox transmission has not previously been observed.
Mpox is usually a mild infection, and clade Ia and Ib mpox are no longer classified as a high-consequence infectious disease (HCID). However, it can be severe in some cases.
The UK has a routine mpox vaccination programme in place for eligible groups, including those who:
-- have multiple sexual partners
-- have group sex
-- visit sex-on-premises venues
Studies show that the vaccine is around 75 to 80% effective in protecting people against clade II mpox. Although there are no studies on vaccine effectiveness against clade Ib mpox, vaccine protection is expected. A high proportion of people in eligible groups in the UK have already had the vaccine.
To check if you are eligible or to book an appointment, visit Mpox vaccine - NHS.
Common symptoms of mpox include:
-- a skin rash or
-- pus-filled lesions which can last 2 to 4 weeks.
-- It can also cause fever, headaches, muscle aches, back pain, low energy and swollen lymph nodes.
Dr Katy Sinka, Head of Sexually Transmitted Infections at UKHSA:
''The ways in which we are seeing mpox continue to spread globally is a reminder to come forward for the vaccine, if you are eligible.
''Although mpox infection is mild for many, it can be severe.
''Getting vaccinated is a proven effective way to protect yourself against severe disease, so please make sure to get the jab if you are eligible.
''It is important to remain alert to the risks from this unpleasant illness. Anyone who thinks they may have mpox should contact NHS 111 for advice on what to do.
UKHSA has robust mechanisms in place to investigate suspected cases of mpox of all clade types, irrespective of travel history, with regular updates on confirmed UK cases of mpox.
UKHSA has today published a technical assessment on mpox to reflect the latest epidemiology.
Further information about symptoms is available on the NHS website.
Dr Will Nutland, Director at The Love Tank said:
''Mpox hasn’t been making headlines for more than a year but these cases show that mpox has not gone away. Routine availability of mpox vaccination, through NHS sexual health clinics, provides an effective way of protecting against mpox. The Love Tank continues to work alongside NHS colleagues to ensure that vaccination programmes continue to reach those who most need them, including in community settings.
Prof. Matt Phillips, President of the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV said:
''We encourage anyone who is eligible for the vaccine against mpox to talk to their local sexual health clinic and arrange to be vaccinated.
''These cases are a reminder both that mpox has not gone away, and of the importance of vaccine programmes in reducing the impact of mpox infection.
Richard Angell OBE, Chief Executive, Terrence Higgins Trust said:
''The last outbreak of mpox hit the gay, bi and other men who have sex with men community disproportionately hard. While it is described as ‘mild’, those who have the mpox rash around their face and body, including in intimate and sensitive areas, will tell you how unpleasant and painful it is.
''In 2022, we were not prepared for the MPOX outbreak and the tools available were hard to mobilise – this time we have a government-funded vaccine programme available to gay and bi men and it is strongly encouraged for those who have multiple partners, take part in sex parties or visit sex on premises venues.
''With Winter Pride season soon upon us across Europe, those travelling to these events would be wise to get vaccinated, at least once, if not twice. Those who have had 2 mpox jabs should have protection. Anyone experiencing a rash after sex should seek out a sexual health clinic or call THT Direct on 0808 802 1221.
(...)
Source: United Kingdom Health Security Agency, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ukhsa-detects-first-case-of-clade-ib-mpox
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
A wild bird from Gruidae Spp. in Saarland Region.
Source WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6940
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I am an Italian blogger, active since 2005 with main focus on emerging infectious diseases such as avian influenza, SARS, antibiotics resistance, and many other global Health issues. Other fields of interest are: climate change, global warming, geological and biological sciences. My activity consists mainly in collection and analysis of news, public services updates, confronting sources and making decision about what are the 'signals' of an impending crisis (an outbreak, for example). When a signal is detected, I follow traces during the entire course of an event. I started in 2005 my blog ''A TIME'S MEMORY'', now with more than 40,000 posts and 3 millions of web interactions. Subsequently I added an Italian Language blog, then discontinued because of very low traffic and interest. I contributed for seven years to a public forum (FluTrackers.com) in the midst of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014, I left the site to continue alone my data tracking job.
