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Abstract The H5N1 avian influenza virus continues to evolve into genetically diverse and highly pathogenic clades with increased potential for cross-species transmission . Recent scientific advances have included the development of next-generation vaccine platforms , promising antiviral compounds , and more sensitive diagnostic tools , alongside strengthened surveillance systems in both animals and humans. However, persistent structural challenges hinder global readiness. Vaccine production is heavily concentrated in high-income countries, limiting equitable access during potential pandemics. Economic and logistical barriers complicate the implementation of control strategies such as vaccination, culling, and compensation schemes. Gaps in international coordination , public communication, and standardization of protocols further exacerbate vulnerabilities. Although sustained human-to-human transmission has not been documented, the severity of confirmed infections and the rapid global s...

Simple Summary The present commentary deals with the pandemic risk brought about by the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) virus . Such a pandemic alarm is justified, among others, by the progressively and rapidly expanding range of virus-susceptible hosts , including humans alongside a significant number of domestic and wild avian and mammalian species , several of which appear to be geographically and phylogenetically distant from each other. Despite its well-established zoonotic potential , no clear-cut evidence of a sustained and efficient HPAI A(H5N1) virus interhuman transmission has thus far been reported. Should this happen in a more or less near future, it could pave the way for a new pandemic. Based upon the above, a “ One Health, One Earth, One Ocean ”-focused, holistic approach would be the necessary prerequisite to deal in an appropriate way with the HPAI A(H5N1) virus-associated zoonotic and pandemic risk. Abstract The focus of this commentary is represented...

Abstract Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has become a critical threat to wildlife, shifting from a seasonal epizootic to a persistent, year-round panzootic with global consequences . Here, we summarize the origin, evolutionary mechanisms, and expanding host range of the current H5N1 virus (clade 2.3.4.4b) and assess its impact on wildlife . Over the past five years, HPAI has caused the deaths of millions of wild birds , causing dramatic population declines in several seabird species . However, comprehensive quantitative mortality data remain scarce, as existing records are often anecdotal, focus on localized mass die-offs, and thus represent only a fraction of the true magnitude of mortality. This gap in data limits the ability to predict outbreak dynamics and mitigate long-term consequences. Using the Northwestern European Sandwich Tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis) population as a case study, we demonstrate the value of integrating mortality data with ecological, serological and...

Highlights •  Outbreaks of H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b in South America have challenged animal and public health. •  Outbreaks across South America affect poultry industry and wild species. •  Surveillance strategies with One Health approach for avian flu is needed Abstract The outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b in South America , which began in 2022, have had significant repercussions across the continent and have led to significant challenges in animal and public health . This review explores the virus's transmission across South America, highlighting the spread of this panzootic through migratory birds and its severe impact on the poultry industry and various wild species , including mammals . The underreporting of influenza cases in poultry underscores the need for enhanced national regulations and strategies to promote reporting within the productive sector. Additionally, the review emphasizes the necessity for active case finding and geno...

Highlights •  Systematic and routine monitoring antigenic drift and shift of AIV in wild birds and poultry is needed. •  Community-based surveillance is key for improving NiV case detection. •  Integrated surveillance across One Health sectors is required. •  Lab upgrades to BSL-3 are needed for enhanced biosafety and diagnostics. Abstract Nipah and avian influenza viruses (NiV and AIV) are priority zoonotic pathogens in Bangladesh and are also important globally because of their pandemic potential . To understand current strengths, areas for improvement, and opportunities to enhance preparedness for NiV and AIV in Bangladesh, as part of the USAID STOP Spillover program , 47 relevant stakeholders were surveyed, and two country leads of the primary surveillance systems were interviewed. Data was collected focusing on four different areas: research projects, surveillance systems, laboratories, and outbreak risk management systems. Despite progress in recent years, our ...

{Summary} World Organisation for Animal Health (2025) . – The State of the World’s Animal Health 2025 . Paris, 124pp. https://doi.org/10.20506/woah.3586. Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Foreword Animal health is inextricably linked to human  health , the stability of ecosystems and the strength of economies. In a world facing increasingly complex global challenges – emerging infectious diseases, climate change, antimicrobial resistance and food insecurity – ensuring the health of animals is crucial. This first iteration of The State of the World’s Animal Health report is a landmark publication released by the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) for its 92nd General Session of the World Assembly, which reflects our commitment to evidence-based decision-making and data-driven action. Drawing  on WOAH’s comprehensive information systems and the collective expertise of its Members and expert network, this report offers a clear, objective and timely analysis of the global animal...

ABSTRACT The outbreak of H5N1 in dairy cattle in United States revealed challenges in identification and management of a novel disease . The virus showed an exceptional ability to spread between farms and among cows within a farm. The impact of the virus on dairy cattle varied from nonclinical to severe clinical signs and death. Many dairy producers did not report clinical signs in their cows or test for the virus. Cats and peridomestic birds on many affected dairies died from viral exposure . Dairy workers showed signs of conjunctivitis , which was confirmed to be due to H5N1. With the disease affecting multiple species and showing efficient cow-to-cow transmission , the situation only worsened. There was a negative impact on the relationships among dairy producers, dairy workers, poultry producers, and veterinarians, in which professional and personal relationships were severed and some experienced loss of employment. The regulatory response varied by geographic location, and in some...

Summary   Avian influenza is not a new disease , but the emergence of high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) viruses of the A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96 lineage (Gs/GD) has necessitated fundamental changes to prevention and control strategies for this disease. No longer just an avian disease, avian influenza is capable of causing severe disease in humans and is considered a potential human pandemic threat requiring One Health approaches . In addition, Gs/GD HPAI viruses have developed the capacity to be carried across and between continents by migratory birds . Given the persistence of the current A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b viruses in wild birds , enhanced measures to prevent and control infection will be needed. In most countries, infection in poultry can be eliminated, although questions will remain about the sustainability of repeated stamping out. Systematic preventive vaccination should be seriously considered as a method for reducing the number of outbreaks. HPAI will not be elimina...