Three decades of #discovery: An overview of #Hendra virus, the original #Henipavirus

 

Abstract

Hendra virus (HeV) emerged in Australia in 1994, causing a devastating outbreak among horses in Brisbane with spread to humans, resulting in one death. This nonsegmented, negative-stranded RNA virus belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and represents the first zoonotic paramyxovirus isolated from bats. Flying foxes (genus Pteropus) serve as the natural reservoir, with all four mainland Australian species carrying antibodies with no apparent disease. HeV initiates infection by binding ephrin-B2 receptors on vascular endothelial cells, driving characteristic pathology involving vasculitis, thrombosis, and neurological complications. Horses are amplifying hosts, shedding virus abundantly in respiratory secretions and posing transmission risks to humans during invasive procedures. To date, seven confirmed human infections have been documented, with a 57% fatality rate, presenting as severe respiratory disease or progressive encephalitis. Two genetic variants are now recognized: the original HeV genotype 1 and the emerging HeV genotype 2, identified in limited equine cases. Recent surveillance of bat roosts revealed substantial viral diversity, with peak shedding occurring during winter—coinciding with equine spillover peaks. Prevention integrates multiple strategies: the licensed equine vaccine Equivac which provides One Health protection for both horses and human contacts; biosecurity measures including proper PPE; and habitat restoration to reduce nutritional stress in bat populations. Emerging therapeutics include monoclonal antibodies, with m102.4 showing cross-protective activity against both HeV and the closely related Nipah virus. No licensed human vaccines currently exist, though candidates are in development. Future prevention strategies increasingly recognize the importance of Indigenous-led conservation approaches alongside biomedical interventions. This review will focus on the history of HeV, virus replication and diversity, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, as well as ecological and interdisciplinary countermeasures.

Author summary

Hendra virus (HeV) was first detected in 1994, with two outbreaks occurring within 2 months of that year. One was the index outbreak in the Brisbane suburb of Hendra, and the other was retrospectively diagnosed in the following year. This review examines the discoveries that have been made in the 30 years since its discovery.

Source: 

Link: https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0014138

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#Report on #influenza viruses received and tested by the #Melbourne #WHO CC for #Reference and Research on #Influenza during 2024

 

Abstract

As part of its role in the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS), the WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza in Melbourne received 12,180 human influenza-positive samples during 2024. Viruses were analysed for their antigenic, genetic, and antiviral susceptibility properties. Selected viruses were propagated in qualified cells or embryonated hens’ eggs for potential use in seasonal influenza virus vaccines. During 2024, influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 and A(H3N2) viruses predominated, accounting for 33% and 42%, respectively, of all viruses received, compared to 5% for influenza B/Victoria. Of note, one influenza A(H5N1) virus was also received in 2024. The majority of A(H1N1)pdm09 (98%), A(H3N2) (88%) and influenza B (100%) viruses analysed at the Centre were found to be antigenically and genetically similar to the respective WHO recommended vaccine strains for the Southern Hemisphere in 2024. Of 4,007 samples tested for susceptibility to the neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir and zanamivir, twelve A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses and one B/Victoria virus showed highly reduced inhibition against oseltamivir or zanamivir. Of 3,294 total samples sequenced for baloxavir susceptibility, 18 of the 1,825 A(H3N2) samples were identified with genetic evidence of reduced susceptibility to baloxavir marboxil in the PA gene.

Source: 

Link: https://ojs.cdi.cdc.gov.au/index.php/cdi/article/view/3449

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Heard and McDonald Islands {#Australia} - #Influenza A #H5N1 viruses of high pathogenicity (Inf. with) (non-poultry including wild birds) (2017-) - Immediate notification [FINAL]

 

By Andrew Shiva / Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46772024

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Samples were taken from dead wild animals during a research voyage to Heard Island, an Australian sub-Antarctic external territory. HPAI was detected from samples taken from two gentoo penguins. This follows initial detections in southern elephant seals on an earlier voyage in October 2025. There was no further evidence of ongoing mass mortality detected during the second voyage in January 2026. Further sequencing and phylogenetic analysis is being undertaken.

Source: 

Link: https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/7261

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History of Mass Transportation: Four Motor tram 497 at Milton in 1949, Brisbane, Australia

 

By Unknown author - Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original uploader was Paddington62 at en.wikipedia, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10541855

Source: 

Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trams_in_Brisbane

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#Ecology of low pathogenicity avian #influenza virus #H7 in wild #birds in south-eastern #Australia prior to emergence of high pathogenicity avian influenza H7 in #poultry

 

Abstract

Adding to the global burden of high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1, an unprecedented five HPAI H7 outbreaks occurred globally in 2024. Of these, three occurred in southeast Australia, with the independent emergence of HPAI H7N9, H7N8, and H7N3, resulting in the destruction of 2 million poultry. Historical data demonstrates that H7 outbreaks in Australia do not occur randomly, rather, there is a strong association between the timing of the previous H7 outbreaks and rainfall patterns in southeastern Australia. We aimed to address a hypothesis wherein prior to H7 outbreaks in poultry, there was a detectable change in H7 prevalence and/or virus diversity in wild bird populations. We addressed this using virological and serological surveillance data generated from multiple programs. Despite the collection of thousands of samples, there was only weak evidence to support our hypothesis, which provides strong incentive to evaluate current surveillance approaches for the purposes of risk prediction. However, in alignment with a previous analysis, there is strong support for a relationship between H7 outbreak probability and rainfall patterns across southeast Australia. Overall, improved understanding of the ecology and evolution of H5 and H7 viruses in wild bird reservoirs is pivotal to global disease preparedness and response.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funder Information Declared

Australian Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry

Australian Department for Health and Aged Care

Source: 

Link: https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2025.12.08.693062v1

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#Surveillance of migratory #shorebirds and #seabirds in 2024 in #Australia reveals incursions of a diversity of low pathogenicity avian #influenza viruses, but HPAI #H5N1

 

Abstract

The current panzootic of high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 has been catastrophic for wildlife, and following a significant sweep, clade 2.3.4.4b is found in every region aside from Oceania. Herein, we report the results of our third year of targeted surveillance of incoming migratory seabirds and shorebirds into Australia. We did not find evidence of HPAI H5N1 in any of the birds tested, and there were no reports of HPAI H5N1 in wildlife tested through other surveillance schemes in 2024. Unlike previous years, we detected a diversity of low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) viruses in shorebirds. Through phylogenetic analysis we revealed that the H3N7 and H4N7 viruses recovered from Red-necked Stints were complex mosaic viruses, comprising segments of Eurasian, Australian shorebird, and Australian waterfowl segments. A H1N7 virus detected comprised a wholly Eurasian introduction, confirming this route for avian influenza viruses into Australian ecosystems. These results provide further evidence for the key role of long-distance migratory shorebirds in introducing novel LPAI viruses into Oceania. While our focus on northern migration routes remained appropriate for HPAI H5N1 surveillance in 2024, the continued spread of HPAI H5N1 to sub-Antarctic Islands demands consideration of a potential southern incursion route for Oceania in future.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funder Information Declared

Australian Research Council, DP190101861

Wildlife Health Australia

Australian Department of Health

Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry

Source: BioRxIV, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.11.06.687052v1

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#Circumpolar spread of avian #influenza #H5N1 to southern Indian Ocean islands

 

Abstract

Since 2020, the outbreak of high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus clade 2.3.4.4b has turned into the largest documented panzootic 1,3. Here, we describe its arrival into the Indian Ocean sub-Antarctic archipelagos of Crozet and Kerguelen, where we first detected the virus in October 2024 in dead southern elephant seals. While the panzootic is ongoing, it has already caused unprecedented mortalities of marine mammals and seabirds. We collected brain swabs from seal and seabird carcasses and obtained 25 novel HPAI H5N1 2.3.4.4b sequences. Using phylogeographic analyses, we show that there have been independent introductions of the virus to Crozet and Kerguelen islands, most likely from the distant South Georgia islands in the Southern Atlantic, and not from the more nearby coasts of South Africa. Our results point to a year-long gap in genomic surveillance in the sub-Antarctic region. Locally, our analyses show that the virus is transmitted between different species. Our serological analyses show that some southern elephant seal had mounted an anti-H5 antibody response. Through its circumpolar spread to the Indian Ocean, HPAI H5N1 2.3.4.4b moves closer to Australia, which remains free from infections with this strain, and represents a major threat to the sub-Antarctic wildlife.

Source: Nature Communications, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-64297-y

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Novel #Henipavirus, Salt Gully Virus, Isolated from Pteropid #Bats, #Australia

 

Abstract

We describe isolation and characterization of a novel henipavirus, designated Salt Gully virus, from the urine of pteropid bats in Australia. We noted the virus to be most closely related to Angavokely virus, not reliant on ephrin receptors for cell entry, and of unknown risk for human disease.

Source: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/31/9/25-0470_article

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#Surveillance and follow up #outcomes of #myocarditis after #mRNA #COVID19 #vaccination in #Australia

Abstract

Clinical progression and medium-long term morbidity from myocarditis following mRNA COVID-19 vaccinations remains an important but undefined public health concern. We conducted prospective follow-up of individuals with either confirmed or probable myocarditis following monovalent Pfizer-BioNTech BNT162b2 or Moderna mRNA-1273 vaccination between 21 April 2021 and 5 July 2022 in Australia. Of 256 individuals who consented to follow up, mostly males following a second dose, 60% (133/221) had ongoing symptoms at 3-6 months and 35% (81/231) at 12-18 months. Self-reported ongoing exercise restrictions, medication requirements, and hospital re-presentations were associated with ongoing symptoms, as was a lower self-reported health status and quality of life. Clinical severity remained mild, with low hospitalisation rates and no deaths in the follow-up period and health-related quality of life improved over time. These findings support ongoing use of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines in at-risk individuals to prevent disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Source: npj Vaccines, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-025-01206-w

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#Management and #outcomes of #children hospitalised with #COVID19 including Incidental and Nosocomial infections in #Australia 2020-2023: a national surveillance study

Highlights

• Acute COVID-19 usually causes mild illness even in young and immunosuppressed children

• Nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with more severe disease

• Concurrent serious bacterial infection is rare in children admitted with acute COVID-19.

ABSTRACT

Background

Management and outcomes of children hospitalised with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection may differ throughout the pandemic or with admission type (clinical COVID-19, incidental COVID-19 or nosocomial infection).

Objectives

Describe the severity, management and outcomes of hospitalised children with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection in Australia across the first 4 years of the pandemic and compare between admission types, SARS-CoV-2 variants, age groups and immune status.

Study design

A multi-centre prospective cohort study of 6,009 children aged 0-16 years between January 2020 to June 2023.

Results

Most children (84.3%) did not receive respiratory support, 33.4% received antibiotics and 8% were admitted to intensive care unit (ICU). Infants <6 months old were more likely to be admitted with clinical COVID than older children (12-16 years). Older children were more likely to receive antibiotics (27.8% vs 43.9%), corticosteroids (11.3% vs 34.1) or ICU admission (5.2% vs 13.5%). Compared to immunocompetent children, the immunosuppressed (7.7%) were more likely to have nosocomial infection (9.5% v 3.9%), receive antibiotics (57% vs 25%) or antivirals (18% vs 4.4%), but less likely to require respiratory support (93.4% vs 83.8%) or ICU admission (3.5% vs 8%). Children with nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infection had higher rates of invasive ventilation (8%) and ICU admission (21%) compared to those with clinical (2.1% and 7.1% respectively) or incidental COVID-19 (4.8% and 9.1% respectively).

Conclusions

Acute COVID-19 generally caused mild disease in hospitalised children, with management and outcomes differing by age and admission type. Similar outcomes were observed across the pandemic. Nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infection was associated with more severe disease.

Source: Journal of Clinical Virology, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1386653225000666?dgcid=rss_sd_all

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#Australia - High pathogenicity avian #influenza #H7N8 viruses (#poultry) (Inf. with) - Immediate notification

This is a confirmed case of H7N8 HPAI in a free-range commercial egg layer poultry farm. H7N8 virus is genetically related to strains detected in wild birds in Australia but different from the strains detected and eradicated in Australia in 2024. Biosecurity controls (quarantine) have been implemented on the farm. A detailed surveillance plan is being developed and epidemiological investigation and tracing is underway. Operational activities have commenced immediately. A Control Area (CA) and Restricted Area (RA) have been declared around the premises. Movement controls are being implemented in the CA and RA. A public information strategy has been employed. All coordinates provided are approximate to the nearest town location. Outbreak location: Victoria State.

Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6249

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