Highly Pathogenic Avian #Influenza #H5N1 Virus #Infection in a #Child with No Known Exposure — San Francisco, #California, December 2024–January 2025

 

Summary

-- What is already known about this topic?

- As of January 1, 2025, 37 human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) had been detected in California, none of which occurred in San Francisco.

-- What is added by this report?

- On January 9, 2025, a case of HPAI A(H5N1) infection was identified in a school-aged child in San Francisco through enhanced surveillance (influenza A virus subtyping of a sample of specimens weekly). No source of exposure was identified, and investigations found no laboratory evidence of human-to-human transmission among close contacts.

-- What are the implications for public health practice?

- Enhanced surveillance and timely subtyping of a subset of influenza A–positive specimens, including specimens from persons without known A(H5N1) exposure, are important to detect avian influenza A virus infections. Public health investigations are critical to monitoring for human-to-human transmission.

Abstract

In response to a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) outbreak in U.S. dairy cows detected in March 2024, with subsequent identification of human cases, the San Francisco Department of Public Health instituted enhanced influenza surveillance (influenza A virus subtyping of a sample of specimens weekly) in June 2024. As of January 1, 2025, 37 human cases of influenza A(H5N1) had been detected in California, none of which occurred in San Francisco. On January 9, 2025, enhanced surveillance detected a human influenza A(H5N1) virus genotype B3.13 infection in a school-aged child in San Francisco with mild illness. Case investigation and contact tracing were conducted to ascertain exposures and detect possible human-to-human transmission. Activities comprised a household visit that included an environmental assessment, close contact interviews and surveys, and molecular and serologic testing. Sixty-seven close contacts (household, school, and health care) were identified. Upper respiratory tract specimens collected from seven asymptomatic household contacts and four symptomatic school contacts all tested negative for influenza virus by real-time reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Although antibodies against influenza A(H5N1) were detected in the index patient, serologic testing of a convenience sample of nine close contacts identified no detectable A(H5)-specific antibodies. Despite an extensive investigation, the infection source remains unknown; no human-to-human transmission was identified among close contacts by rRT-PCR and serologic testing. Continued enhanced surveillance and timely subtyping of a subset of influenza A–positive specimens are essential components of a comprehensive strategy to detect human novel influenza A virus infections, including among persons without known exposures to A(H5N1) viruses.

Source: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, MMWR, https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/74/wr/mm7433a2.htm?s_cid=OS_mm7433a2_e&ACSTrackingID=USCDC_921-DM149891&ACSTrackingLabel=Week%20in%20MMWR%3A%20Vol.%2074%2C%20September%204%2C%202025&deliveryName=USCDC_921-DM149891

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#DRC declares #Ebola virus disease #outbreak in #Kasai Province (#WHO AFRO, September 4 '25)

 

Kinshasa – Health authorities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have declared an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Kasai Province where 28 suspected cases and 15 deaths, including four health workers, have been reported as of 4 September 2025.

The outbreak has affected Bulape and Mweka health zones in Kasai Province where health officials have been carrying out investigations after the cases and the deaths reported presented with symptoms including fever, vomiting, diarrhoea and haemorrhage. Samples tested on 3 September at the country’s National Institute of Biomedical Research in the capital Kinshasa confirmed the cause of the outbreak as Ebola Zaire caused by Ebola virus disease.   

A national Rapid Response Team joined by World Health Organization (WHO) experts in epidemiology, infection prevention and control, laboratory and case management has been deployed to Kasai Province to rapidly strengthen disease surveillance, treatment and infection prevention and control in health facilities. Provincial risk communication experts have also been deployed to reach communities and help them understand how to protect themselves.

Additionally, WHO is delivering two tonnes of supplies including personal protective equipment, mobile laboratory equipment and medical supplies. The area is difficult to reach, taking at least one day of driving from Tshikapa (the provincial capital of Kasai), with few air links.   

“We’re acting with determination to rapidly halt the spread of the virus and protect communities,” said Dr Mohamed Janabi, WHO Regional Director for Africa. “Banking on the country’s long-standing expertise in controlling viral disease outbreaks, we’re working closely with the health authorities to quickly scale up key response measures to end the outbreak as soon as possible.”   

Case numbers are likely to increase as the transmission is ongoing. Response teams and local teams will work to find the people who may be infected and need to receive care, to ensure everyone is protected as quickly as possible.    

The country has a stockpile of treatments, as well as 2000 doses of the Ervebo Ebola vaccine, effective to protect against this type of Ebola, already prepositioned in Kinshasa that will be quickly moved to Kasai to vaccinate contacts and frontline health workers.   

The Democratic Republic of the Congo’s last outbreak of Ebola virus disease affected the north-western Equateur province in April 2022. It was brought under control in under three months thanks to the robust efforts of the health authorities. In Kasai province, previous outbreaks of Ebola virus disease were reported in 2007 and 2008. In the country overall, there have been 15 outbreaks since the disease was first identified in 1976.    

Ebola virus disease is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. It is transmitted to people through close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected animals such as fruit bats (thought to be the natural hosts). Human-to-human transmission is through direct contact with blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with or has died from Ebola, objects that have been contaminated with body fluids from a person sick with Ebola or the body of a person who died from Ebola.

Source: World Health Organization, Regional Office for Africa, https://www.afro.who.int/countries/democratic-republic-of-congo/news/democratic-republic-congo-declares-ebola-virus-disease-outbreak-kasai-province

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#Italy, Integrated #WNV & #USUV Viruses #Surveillance - Weekly #Bulletin No. 8, September 4 2025 (summary)

{Summary}

-- During current surveillance week (28 August - 3 September 2025): 

- 72 new confirmed human cases of West Nile Virus infection have been confirmed; 

-- The total number of cases since the beginning of epidemic season has risen to 502 (they were 430 in the last bulletin); of these: 

- 226 were West Nile Neuroinvasive Disease (WNND): 11 in Piedmont, 16 in Lombardy, 17 Veneto, 1 Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 1 Liguria, 15 Emilia-Romagna, 3 Tuscany, 71 Latium, 2 Molise, 72 Campania, 1 Apulia, 2 Basilicata, 5 Calabria, 1 Sicily, 8 Sardinia, 

- 40 were asymptomatic cases detected in blood donors, 

- 226 were West Nile Fever cases (one of them imported from Kenya),

- 5 asymptomatic cases, 

- 5 unspecified. 

-- So far there have been 33 fatal cases: 3 in Piedmont, 1 Lombardy, 1 Emilia-Romagna, 14 Latium, 12 Campania, 2 Calabria. 

- The Case-Fatality rate among WNND cases is thus far at 14.6% (in 2018 it was 20%, in 2024 14%). 

-- During current surveillance week, there have been 4 confirmed Usutu virus human infections: 2 in Piedmont, 1 Veneto, 1 Latium).

(...)

Source: High Institute of Health, https://www.epicentro.iss.it/westnile/bollettino/Bollettino_WND_2025_08.pdf

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Characterization of the first detected Avian #Influenza #H9N2 #human case in #Ghana

 

Abstract

Avian influenza A(H9N2) has been circulating in poultry across Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, posing human health risks. In Ghana, it has co-circulated among poultry with influenza A (H5N1). This report describes Ghana’s first confirmed human case of avian influenza A(H9N2) virus infection in a two-year-old boy from Upper East Region, identified through active respiratory surveillance. Molecular and genomic analyses confirmed the virus was of the G1 lineage, closely related to other West African strains, with mammalian adaptive mutations known to increase human infection potential. The child experienced mild symptoms, received outpatient care, and recovered. Health authorities conducted epidemiological investigations. No source was identified for the child’s infection; no additional human infections were detected. This case highlights the importance of robust avian influenza surveillance in animals and humans, particularly in regions with human-animal interactions. It underscores the importance of national and global collaboration using a One Health approach to detect and prevent zoonotic spillovers and potential pandemics.

Source: Emerging Microbes and Infections, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/22221751.2025.2556717

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#Bolivia - #Influenza A #H5 viruses of high pathogenicity (Inf. with) (non-poultry including wild birds) (2017-) - Immediate notification

 

Neurological-respiratory disease in backyard domestic birds raised in a farm with partial laboratory results of H5 avian influenza virus. Zoning was implemented for the control of the outbreak with stamping out measures for all affected and contact birds on the farm, and surveillance will be carried out in the perifocal and protection areas. A body of water representing a possible place of contact between domestic and wild birds is located on the premises.

Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6755

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#Portugal - High pathogenicity avian #influenza #H5N1 viruses (#poultry) (Inf. with) - Immediate notification

 

A poultry farm in Santarém Region.

Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6759

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#Germany - High pathogenicity avian #influenza #H5N1 viruses (#poultry) (Inf. with) - Immediate notification

 

A poultry farm in Schleswig-Holstein State.

Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6760

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The paradoxical #impact of #drought on #WNV #risk: insights from long-term ecological data

 

Abstract

Mosquito-borne diseases are deeply embedded within ecological communities, with environmental changes—particularly climate change—shaping their dynamics. Increasingly intense droughts across the globe have profound implications for the transmission of these diseases, as drought conditions can alter mosquito breeding habitats, host-seeking behaviours and mosquito–host contact rates. To quantify the effect of drought on disease transmission, we use West Nile virus as a model system and leverage a robust mosquito and virus dataset consisting of over 500 000 trap nights collected from 2010 to 2023, spanning a historic drought period followed by atmospheric rivers. We pair this surveillance dataset with a novel modelling approach that incorporates monthly changes in bird host community competence, along with drought conditions, to estimate the effect of drought severity on West Nile virus risk using panel regression models. Our results show that while drought decreases mosquito abundances, it paradoxically increases West Nile virus infection rates. This counterintuitive pattern probably stems from reduced water availability, which concentrates mosquitoes and pathogen-amplifying bird hosts around limited water sources, thereby increasing disease transmission risk. However, the magnitude of the effect depends critically on mosquito species, suggesting species-specific behavioural traits are key to understanding the effect of drought on mosquito-borne disease risk across real landscapes.

Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2025.1365?af=R

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#Azelastine Nasal #Spray for #Prevention of #SARS-CoV-2 Infections A Phase 2 #RCT

 

Key Points

-- Question: Is regular application of azelastine nasal spray associated with reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 infections?

- Findings: In this randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial that included 450 participants, the incidence of laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections was significantly lower with application of azelastine nasal spray compared with placebo treatment.

-- Meaning: The use of azelastine nasal spray may help to reduce the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infections.

Abstract

Importance  

Limited pharmaceutical options exist for preexposure prophylaxis of COVID-19 beyond vaccination. Azelastine, an antihistamine nasal spray used for decades to treat allergic rhinitis, has in vitro antiviral activity against respiratory viruses, including SARS-CoV-2.

Objective  

To determine the efficacy and safety of azelastine nasal spray for prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infections in healthy adults.

Design, Setting, and Participants  

A phase 2, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single-center trial was conducted from March 2023 to July 2024. Healthy adults from the general population were enrolled at the Saarland University Hospital in Germany.

Interventions  

Participants were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive azelastine, 0.1%, nasal spray or placebo 3 times daily for 56 days. SARS-CoV-2 rapid antigen testing (RAT) was conducted twice weekly, with positive results confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Symptomatic participants with negative RAT results underwent multiplex PCR testing for respiratory viruses.

Main Outcome  

The primary end point was the number of PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections during the study.

Results  

A total of 450 participants were randomized, with 227 assigned to azelastine and 223 to placebo; 299 (66.4%) were female, 151 (33.6%) male, with a mean (SD) age of 33.0 (13.3) years. Most were White (417 [92.7%]), with 4 (0.9%) African, 22 (4.9%) Asian, and 7 (1.6%) of other ethnicity. In the intention-to-treat (ITT) population, the incidence of PCR-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection was significantly lower in the azelastine group (n = 5 [2.2%]) compared with the placebo group (n = 15 [6.7%]) (OR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.11-0.87). As secondary end points, azelastine demonstrated an increase in mean (SD) time to SARS-CoV-2 infection among infected participants (31.2 [9.3] vs 19.5 [14.8] days), a reduction of the overall number of PCR-confirmed symptomatic infections (21 of 227 participants vs 49 of 223 participants), and a lower incidence of PCR-confirmed rhinovirus infections (1.8% vs 6.3%). Adverse events were comparable between the groups.

Conclusions and Relevance  

In this single-center trial, azelastine nasal spray was associated with reduced risk of SARS-CoV-2 respiratory infections. These findings support the potential of azelastine as a safe prophylactic approach warranting confirmation in larger, multicentric trials.

Trial registration  EudraCT number: 2022-003756-13

Source: JAMA Internal Medicine, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2838335

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#SouthAfrica - #Influenza A #H5N1 viruses of high pathogenicity (Inf. with) (non-poultry including wild birds) (2017-) - Immediate notification

 

{A Great White Pelican, one of the affected species in the outbreak.}

By Charles J. Sharp - Own work, from Sharp Photography, sharpphotography.co.uk, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=66151818

Wild birds of different species in Western Cape Region.

Source: WOAH, https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/6732

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#Placental transfer of #medications to treat #COVID19, #molnupiravir, #favipiravir and #nirmatrelvir/ritonavir, in the ex vivo human cotyledon model

 

Abstract

Objectives

There have been few studies in pregnant women of medications that are used to reduce severe complications from COVID-19 infection. Currently, nirmatrelvir/ritonavir (Paxlovid) is recommended by the National Institutes for Health to treat non-hospitalized pregnant patients with mild-to-moderate COVID-19 illness. The aim of this study was to determine the transplacental passage of molnupiravir, nirmatrelvir/ritonavir and favipiravir utilizing an ex vivo placental perfusion model.

Methods

Human placental cotyledons were continuously perfused in a double open circuit. The study molecules and antipyrine, a marker of placental viability, were dissolved in the maternal solution. The experiment was conducted over 90 minutes, and every 5 minutes, samples of the maternal solution and fetal exchange solutions were collected for analysis. We calculated the concentrations of study molecules, fetal transfer ratios and the clearance indexes to determine placental transfer.

Results

Of 18 placentas analysed, 14 were validated by antipyrine transfer. Nirmatrelvir alone had low placental transfer, with a fetal transfer ratio of 0.025. Its placenta transfer increased in the presence of ritonavir, with a fetal transfer ratio of 0.06. The molnupiravir metabolite, β-D-N-4-hydroxycytidine (EIDD 1931), showed low placental transfer, with an average fetal transfer ratio of 0.04. By contrast, favipiravir crossed the placenta with an average fetal transfer ratio of 0.425.

Conclusions

Placental transfer was high for the nucleoside analogue favipiravir, while it was low for molnupiravir and low for the protease inhibitor nirmatrelvir but increased by ritonavir. Clinical data are required to confirm the placental transfer and determine the safety of COVID antivirals in pregnancy.

Source: Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, https://academic.oup.com/jac/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jac/dkaf302/8245204?redirectedFrom=fulltext

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The #cow udder is a potential mixing vessel for #influenza A viruses

 

Abstract

The incursion of high pathogenicity avian influenza A virus (IAV) into US dairy cows is unprecedented in the era of molecular diagnosis and pathogen sequencing. This raises questions over the likelihood of further outbreaks and whether dairy cattle could be a mixing vessel for novel strains of IAV. Using a panel of BSL2-safe reassortant viruses representing clade 2.3.4.4b H5 epizootic lineages circulating since 2020, we found that a cow B3.13 isolate displayed enhanced replication in cow mammary gland cells, along with increased viral polymerase activity and stronger interferon antagonism in cow cells compared to an earlier EA-2020-C genotype virus. However, multiple avian and mammalian IAV strains, including other clade 2.3.4.4b high pathogenicity genotypes, were replication competent in bovine cells, particularly those of the mammary gland, suggesting that there is a diverse circulating IAV pool with the potential to infect cows. Moreover, we show that cow mammary cells co-express alpha-2,3 and alpha-2,6 - linked sialic acids, and are susceptible to co-infection with human and avian IAVs. We conclude that the US cow influenza outbreak does not simply reflect a unique adaptation of the B3.13 genotype virus; rather, the bovine udder represents a permissive niche for IAV and a plausible site for reassortment, underscoring its potential role in generating novel influenza viruses with pandemic risk.

Competing Interest Statement

PD is a member of the UK government Department for Food, Environment and Rural Affairs (Defra) Science and Advisory Council subgroup on Emerging & Exotic Diseases (SAC-ED). He also holds a patent in the area of influenza vaccines. SdW is a member of the advisory committee of Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease of the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Food Security and Nature.

Funder Information Declared

Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, BB/CCG2270/1, BBS/E/RL/230002A, BBS/E/RL/230002C, BBS/E/PI/230002B, BBS/E/PI/23NB0004, BBS/E/PI/23NB0003

Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, BB/V0119899/1, BB/T00875X/1

Natural Environment Research Council, NE/Y001591/1

Government of India, https://ror.org/036h6g940, BT/IN/Indo-UK/FADH/48/AM/2013

Medical Research Council, MR/Y03368X/1

Wellcome Trust, https://ror.org/029chgv08, 211222/Z/18/Z

Source: BioRxIV, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.08.29.673079v1

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The Bridge at Narni, Camille Corot (1826)

 

Public Domain.

Source: WikiArt, https://www.wikiart.org/en/camille-corot/the-augustan-bridge-at-narni-1826

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#Vectors on the Move: How #Climate Change Fuels the Spread of #Arboviruses in #Europe

 

Abstract

Climate change is increasingly recognized as a major driver of emerging infectious diseases, particularly vector-borne diseases (VBDs), which are expanding in range and intensity worldwide. Europe, traditionally considered low-risk for many arboviral infections, is now experiencing autochthonous transmission of pathogens such as dengue, chikungunya, Zika virus, West Nile virus, malaria, and leishmaniasis. Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and milder winters have facilitated the establishment and spread of competent vectors, including Aedes, Anopheles, Phlebotomus, and Culex species, in previously non-endemic areas. These climatic shifts not only impact vector survival and distribution but also influence vector competence and pathogen development, ultimately increasing transmission potential. This narrative review explores the complex relationship between climate change and VBDs, with a particular focus on pediatric populations. It highlights how children may experience distinct clinical manifestations and complications, and how current data on pediatric burden remain limited for several emerging infections. Through an analysis of existing literature and reported outbreaks in Europe, this review underscores the urgent need for enhanced surveillance, integrated vector control strategies, and climate-adapted public health policies. Finally, it outlines research priorities to better anticipate and mitigate future disease emergence in the context of global warming. Understanding and addressing this evolving risk is essential to safeguard public health and to protect vulnerable populations, particularly children, in a rapidly changing climate.

Source: Microorganisms, https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/13/9/2034

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Ciliated cells promote high infectious potential of #influenza A virus through the efficient intracellular activation of #hemagglutinin

 

ABSTRACT

Influenza viruses utilize host proteases to activate the viral fusion protein, hemagglutinin (HA), into its fusion-competent form. Although proteolytic activation of HA is essential for virus replication, the cell-type dependence of HA activation within the airway epithelium and the subcellular location(s) in which it occurs are not well established. To address these questions, we investigated the proteolytic activation of HA in differentiated human airway epithelial cells using contemporary and historical H1N1 and H3N2 strains. We find that activation is efficient across viral strains and subtypes but depends on cellular tropism, with ciliated cells activating HA more effectively than non-ciliated cells. Similar to prior observations in immortalized cell lines, we find that HA activation occurs intracellularly, constraining the antiviral activity of host-directed protease inhibitors. These results establish that HA activation within the airway epithelium depends on cellular tropism and identify important considerations for the development of protease inhibitors as antivirals.

Source: Journal of Virology, https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/jvi.00685-25?af=R

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Evolving #Threats: Adaptive Mechanisms of #Monkeypox Virus (MPXV) in the 2022 Global #Outbreak and Their Implications for #Vaccine Strategies

 

Abstract

Monkeypox virus (MPXV) experienced an unprecedented global outbreak in 2022, characterized by a significant departure from historical patterns: a rapid spread of the epidemic to more than 110 non-traditional endemic countries, with more than 90,000 confirmed cases; a fundamental shift in the mode of transmission, with human-to-human transmission (especially among men who have sex with men (MSM)) becoming the dominant route (95.2%); and genetic sequencing revealing a key adaptive mutation in a novel evolutionary branch (Clade IIb) that triggered the outbreak. These features highlight the significant evolution of MPXV in terms of host adaptation, transmission efficiency, and immune escape ability. The aim of this paper is to provide insights into the viral adaptive evolutionary mechanisms driving this global outbreak, with a particular focus on the role of immune escape (e.g., novel mechanisms of M2 proteins targeting the T cell co-stimulatory pathway) in enhancing viral transmission and pathogenicity. At the same time, we systematically evaluate the cross-protective efficacy and limitations of existing vaccines (ACAM2000, JYNNEOS, and LC16), as well as recent advances in novel vaccine platforms, especially mRNA vaccines, in inducing superior immune responses. The study further reveals the constraints to outbreak control posed by grossly unequal global vaccine distribution (e.g., less than 10% coverage in high-burden regions such as Africa) and explores the urgency of optimizing stratified vaccination strategies and facilitating technology transfer to promote equitable access. The core of this paper is to elucidate the dynamic game between viral evolution and prevention and control strategies (especially vaccines). The key to addressing the long-term epidemiological challenges of MPXV in the future lies in continuously strengthening global surveillance of viral evolution (early warning of highly transmissible/pathogenic variants), accelerating the development of next-generation vaccines based on new mechanisms and platforms (e.g., multivalent mRNAs), and resolving the vaccine accessibility gap through global collaboration to build an integrated defense system of “Surveillance, Research and Development, and Equitable Vaccination,” through global collaboration to address the vaccine accessibility gap.

Source: Viruses, https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/17/9/1194

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Stabilization of the trimeric pre-fusion structures of #influenza #H1 and #H9 #hemagglutinins by mutations in the stem helices

 

Abstract

Stabilizing the pre-fusion structures of antigenic proteins can enhance the effectiveness of antiviral vaccines. The pre-fusion form of hemagglutinin (HA) from the influenza virus typically adopts a stable trimeric structure. However, the recombinant ectodomain of HA from the A/California/04/2009 (H1N1) influenza virus formed a monomer in solution rather than the expected trimer. To promote trimer formation in the pre-fusion conformation, we redesigned five amino acid residues in the stem region of HA that are involved in trimerization. The engineered HA protein formed a stable trimer at both pH 8.0 and pH 5.5. Additionally, the thermal stability of the modified protein improved, as indicated by an approximately ten-degree increase in its denaturation temperature. Cryo-EM analysis at 2.2 angstrom resolution confirmed that the mutant HA protein adopted the pre-fusion structure. Furthermore, the stabilized mutant exhibited enhanced immunogenicity in mice. We applied the same optimization strategy to the HA proteins from A/Malaysia/1706215/2007 (H1N1) and A/swine/Hong Kong/2106/98 (H9N2). These engineered proteins demonstrated increased thermal stability and retained a trimeric pre-fusion structure, as confirmed by cryo-EM analysis. Extending this optimization strategy to the equivalent five residues in hemagglutinins from six additional group 1 influenza viruses successfully stabilized their trimeric structures.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funder Information Declared

National Research Foundation of Korea, https://ror.org/013aysd81, RS-2024-00344154

National Research Facilities & Equipment Center, RS-2024-00436298

Technology Innovation Program, 20019707

Source: BioRxIV, https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.08.27.672506v1

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History of Mass Transportation: The SNCF X 4500 Autorail

 

By Florian Pépellin - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=36916592

Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNCF_Class_X_4500

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