Red Friend, Lan Ying (Ming Dynasty)

 

Public Domain.

Source: 

Link: https://www.wikiart.org/en/lan-ying/red-friend

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#Enterovirus D68 #Sequence #Variations and #Pathogenicity: A Review

Abstract

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68), a neurotropic respiratory pathogen, poses a considerable clinical threat through its link to pediatric acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) and severe respiratory illness. The possibility of recurrent epidemics, evidenced since the 2014 outbreak, remains a major concern. Genomic determinants of virulence are central to this threat. Sequence variations that affect host–receptor interactions, immune evasion, and replication efficiency serve as critical modifiers of pathogenicity. This article systematically reviews the evidence for specific genomic sites that enhance EV-D68 virulence, focusing on three critical regions: the VP1 receptor-binding site, the 2Apro/TRAF3 cleavage site, and the 3Cpro immunoregulatory region. Mutations in the VP1 receptor-binding site can alter affinity for host receptors such as sialic acid, heparan sulfate, and MFSD6, thereby shaping viral entry and tissue tropism. Alterations in the 2Apro/TRAF3 cleavage site may impair proteolytic cleavage of host TRAF3, attenuating immune evasion and reducing viral pathogenicity. Variations in the 3Cpro region affect its efficiency in cleaving host proteins involved in translation and autophagy, ultimately modulating viral replication and antiviral responses. Finally, we propose that monitoring for mutations in these key virulence determinants, particularly within the surface-exposed VP1, is essential for effective outbreak preparedness.

Source: 

Link: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/18/1/73

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#Coronavirus Disease Research #References (by AMEDEO, Jan. 3 '26)

 

Antiviral Res

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   PubMed         Abstract available
   
   

   
   Eur J Radiol

2. YAO J, Zhang L, Huang S, Cao S, et al
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   PubMed         Abstract available
   
   

   
   Int J Infect Dis

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4. ZWAWI A, Sward P, Wandell P, Carlsson AC, et al
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17. ANDERER S
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#Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses Research #References (by AMEDEO, Jan. 3 '26)

 

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    Pediatrics

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    PLoS Comput Biol

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    PLoS One

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30. PARK J, Nam HK, Cho SI
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34. AZIZ K, Ismail MS, Bibars M, Selim N, et al
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35. NIU X, Burkemper B, Jiang X
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    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

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    Vaccine

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History of Mass Transportation: The Stadler Rail CFF Ee 922 Electric Shunter in Brig

 

Par Milleuros — Travail personnel, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21899269

Source: 

Link: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFF_Ee_922

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The Emerging #Threat of #Monkeypox: An Updated #Overview

Abstract

Monkeypox (MPOX) is an emerging zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), an orthopoxvirus closely related to smallpox. Initially confined to endemic regions in Central and West Africa, MPOX has recently gained global significance with outbreaks reported across multiple continents. MPXV is maintained in animal reservoirs but is increasingly transmitted from person to person, facilitated by close contact, respiratory droplets, and, in some cases, sexual transmission. Clinically, MPOX presents with fever, lymphadenopathy, and a characteristic vesiculopustular rash, though atypical manifestations have been observed in recent outbreaks, complicating diagnosis. Laboratory confirmation relies on molecular testing, while differential diagnosis must consider varicella, herpes, and other vesicular illnesses. Therapeutic options remain limited; supportive care is the cornerstone of management, but antivirals such as tecovirimat and brincidofovir, as well as smallpox vaccines, have shown efficacy in mitigating disease severity and preventing infection. The unprecedented global outbreak has underscored the importance of surveillance, rapid diagnostics, and coordinated public health responses to contain transmission. This review provides an overview of epidemiology, virology, clinical manifestations, modes of transmission, available diagnostics, and prophylactic and therapeutic strategies against MPOX. We also discuss the role of animal reservoirs, viral evolution, and human-to-human transmission in shaping the dynamics of recent MPOX outbreaks. By summarizing the latest evidence, this review aims to inform clinicians, researchers, and policymakers about key aspects of MPOX biology, clinical management, and prevention, while identifying gaps that warrant future investigation for the control of this and potentially other emerging zoonotic-related pathogens with an impact on human health.

Source: 

Link: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/18/1/69

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A cocktail #vaccine with #monkeypox virus #antigens confers protection without selecting #mutations in potential immune evasion genes in the vaccinia WR strain challenge

ABSTRACT

Faced with the global monkeypox outbreak, current vaccine development predominantly focuses on the mRNA platform despite its limitations in stability and long-term efficacy. Here, we engineered a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV)-vectored cocktail vaccine encoding four conserved monkeypox virus (MPXV) antigens (A35R, A29L, M1R, and B6R; >94% clade homology), leveraging the thermostable properties of the VSV platform validated for 4°C storage in Ebola vaccines. In BALB/c mice, this multi-antigen vaccine elicited a rapid humoral response with specific IgG detectable by day 7, effectively neutralized the virus, and induced a robust Th1/Th2 balanced cytokine response. Immunization conferred 100% survival against lethal vaccinia virus WR strain challenge, with undetectable viral loads in the lungs and serum, and sustained efficacy against secondary infection at 60 days. Histopathology confirmed minimal lung damage in vaccinated mice. Crucially, upon the successive challenges, mutations in key poxvirus immune evasion genes (E3L and B7R) emerged in the single-component vaccine groups but were absent in the cocktail vaccine group. This finding provides direct evidence that the cocktail strategy suppresses viral escape, underscoring a fundamental advantage over single-antigen approaches. Our findings demonstrate the rVSV-based cocktail vaccines as a potent, scalable, and thermostable candidate for global MPXV control, particularly in regions with limited settings.

IMPORTANCE

The global emergence of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) underscores the urgent need for effective and accessible vaccines. We developed a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV)-vectored cocktail vaccine expressing four conserved MPXV antigens. This multivalent vaccine elicits rapid and potent immune responses in mice, conferring complete protection against lethal vaccinia virus challenge. A critical finding is that while successive viral challenges selected for mutations in key immune evasion proteins in single-antigen vaccine groups, these mutations were absent in the cocktail-vaccinated group. This suggests that the cocktail strategy may suppress viral genetic drift, potentially limiting escape pathways. Combined with the thermostability of the VSV platform, our vaccine presents a promising and scalable candidate for combating monkeypox.

Source: 

Link: https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/mbio.03200-25?af=R

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Constructing national identity in #public #health #crises: a comparative DHA study of #China and the #USA (2003–2023)

{Abstract}

This study examines how China and the United States construct national identity in multilateral settings during public health crises through strategic discourse. Drawing on National Identity Theory and the Discourse Historical Approach (DHA), it analyzes speeches delivered at the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) from 2003 to 2023, covering multiple crises including SARS, H1N1, Ebola, HIV/AIDS, and COVID-19. Through a longitudinal and cross-crisis comparative analysis, the study reveals evolving discursive patterns that reflect shifting self–other dynamics in global health governance. China consistently constructs an identity as a cooperative, responsible major power through inclusive and multilateral language, while the United States exhibits greater variation across administrations, often framing its identity through alliance-centered and leading position. By bridging discourse-historical analysis with corpus-based methods, this research offers one of the first systematic cross-crisis comparisons of identity construction in global health diplomacy. It highlights how crises serve as critical junctures for nations to redefine their international roles, providing insights into the communicative foundations of global health governance.

Source: 

Link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1688483/full

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An ultrapotent #human #antibody neutralizes all maturation states of #Zika virus

 

Significance

Zika virus causes microcephaly in fetuses and no vaccines or therapeutics currently exist against it. Mature and immature flavivirus particles are infectious. Here, we showed the cryoelectron microscopy (cryoEM) structures of an ultrapotent A9E human antibody, complexed with both mature (mZIKV) and immature (immZIKV) Zika virus, and the antibody neutralization mechanism. One important characteristic is that Fab A9E can distort both mZIKV and ImmZIKV particle structures. Additionally, Fab A9E or IgG A9E LALA mutant can abolish or reduce the overall infection to myeloid cells when added to other infection enhancing antibody DV62.5:immZIKV complexes. Thus, antibody A9E represents a promising potential prophylactic and therapeutic candidate, as it is effective against all maturation states of Zika virus.

Abstract

Zika virus (ZIKV), a flavivirus, causes a range of clinical complications including microcephaly in human fetuses. Currently, there is no treatment or vaccine. Different maturation states (mature and immature forms) of flavivirus particles have been observed to be released from infected cells and are infectious. To understand how an ultrapotent human antibody (HMAb) A9E can neutralize these Zika particles, we determined the cryoEM structures of the A9E Fab fragment complexed with mature (mZIKV) and immature (immZIKV) ZIKV to 2.8Å and 7.5Å, respectively. A9E binds to an epitope spanning Domain I (EDI), EDIII, and their linker in an E protein protomer in both immZIKV and mZIKV particles. A9E generally inhibited prior to or during virus attachment to cells, via virus aggregation, distortion of virus particles and inhibition of receptor binding. ImmZIKV is particularly sensitive to structural distortion by Fab A9E. The primary mode of infection used by ImmZIKV is via antibody-dependent enhancement of infection (ADE)—the formation of virus complex with nonneutralizing or subneutralizing concentrations of antibodies, that leads to enhanced infection of Fcγ positive myeloid cells. IgG A9E, by itself displays poor ADE activity. When IgG LALA mutant or Fab A9E is added to other enhancing antibody (DV62.5):virus complexes, they can strongly reduce the overall ADE activity. This is likely due to their ability to distort virus particle structure, suggesting that HMAb A9E could be a potential prophylactic and therapeutic candidate against all maturation states of ZIKV.

Source: 

Link: https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2502522122?af=R

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Expanding Horizons: #Host Range #Evolution and #Treatment Strategies for Highly Pathogenic Avian #Influenza #H5N1 and #H7N9

 

Abstract

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs), including H5N1 and H7N9, from the Orthomyxoviridae family present substantial public health concerns. The predominant circulating clade 2.3.4.4b has demonstrated enhanced capacity for mammalian adaptation, raising concerns about potential reassortment with human seasonal influenza viruses. Unlike H7N9’s limited host range, H5N1 infects birds, various mammals, and humans. Recent concerns include widespread H5N1 infection of U.S. dairy cattle across 18 states, affecting over 1000 herds with 71 human infections (70 H5N1 and 1 H5N5). Key observations include cow-to-cow transmission, viral presence in milk, and transmission to humans, mainly through occupational exposure. Evidence of mammal-to-mammal transmission has been documented in European and Canadian foxes and South American marine mammals. Standard pasteurization effectively inactivates the virus in milk. The continuing mammalian adaptations, particularly mutations like PB2-E627K, PB2-D701N, and PB2-M535I, suggest potential for further evolution in new hosts, emphasizing the need for enhanced surveillance to mitigate pandemic risks.

Source: 

Link: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/18/1/54

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Phylogenetic Characteristics and High Prevalence of a #Merbecovirus in #Hedgehogs from Greenspace of a Metropolis, #China

 

Abstract

SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 have posed tremendous threats to human health, highlighting the necessity of monitoring cross-species transmission of animal coronaviruses to humans. Hedgehogs infected with coronaviruses have been reported in several countries across Europe and Asia, raising concerns about the potential transmission of coronaviruses from hedgehogs to humans. In this study, we investigated coronavirus infections in hedgehogs inhabiting greenspaces in metropolitan Beijing and identified a Merbecovirus subgenus coronavirus with a prevalence rate of 30% (95% CI: 25–35%) among 317 hedgehogs. Phylogenetic analysis of 23 complete viral genome sequences revealed a monophyletic origin, showing close relatedness to Erinaceus hedgehog coronavirus HKU31 (Ea-HedCoV HKU31) with genome-wide nucleotide identities of 93.24–96.42%, and evidence of recombination with Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4. These findings suggest that the increase in wildlife populations associated with urban greenspace development may pose a potential threat to human health that should not be overlooked.

Source: 

Link: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/14/1/83

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PA-X 122V broadly determines the #host shutoff #activity of #influenza A viruses

 

ABSTRACT

Multiple genes are involved in the pathogenicity of influenza A virus. Our previous study reported two naturally occurring amino acid mutations in the polymerase acidic (PA) protein as crucial determinants of the virulence of Eurasian avian-like H1N1 (EA H1N1) influenza viruses. PA-X, an accessory protein encoded by the PA gene, is thought to play a role in viral pathogenicity and regulation of host immune response, but its specific function remains unclear. In this study, we found that two genetically similar EA H1N1 influenza viruses, A/swine/Liaoning/FX38/2017 (FX38) and A/swine/Liaoning/SY72/2018 (SY72), induced significantly different suppression levels of host protein synthesis. The difference in host shutoff activity induced by PA-X protein was the key factor affecting the inhibition of host gene expression. Loss of PA-X expression significantly reduced its host shutoff activity, thereby enhancing host antiviral immune response. PA-X deficiency had no apparent effect on polymerase activity or replication capacity. We pinpointed a single residue 122V involved in the ability of PA-X to inhibit host gene expression and thereby modulate the host antiviral response. Notably, PA-X 122V was highly conserved among multiple subtypes of influenza A viruses and vital for maintaining the inhibitory effects on the host protein synthesis. Together, these findings demonstrate that the PA-X protein plays a major role in the suppression of host protein synthesis during influenza virus infection and elucidate the molecular mechanism by which the amino acid residue 122V in PA-X facilitates its suppression effects on host innate immune responses.

Source: 

Link: https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/mbio.03433-25?af=R

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#USA, #Wastewater Data for Avian #Influenza #H5 (#CDC, Dec. 30 '25)

 

{Excerpt}

Time Period: December 14, 2025 - December 20, 2025

-- H5 Detection: 1 site(s) (0.2%)

-- No Detection: 461 site(s) (99.8%)

-- No samples in last week: 57 site(s)

(...)

Source: 

Link: https://www.cdc.gov/nwss/rv/wwd-h5.html

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#Finland - #Influenza A #H5 viruses of high pathogenicity (Inf. with) (non-poultry including wild birds) (2017-) - Immediate notification [FINAL]

 

A Whooper Swan in Lounais-Suomen aluehallintovirasto Region.

Source: 

Link: https://wahis.woah.org/#/in-review/7156

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Quantifying #H5N1 #outbreak #potential and #control effectiveness in high-risk agricultural populations

 

Abstract

Avian influenza is a global public health threat. Since 2021, the ongoing H5N1 panzootic has brought a major shift in H5Nx epidemiology, including unprecedented spread, wide host range and lack of seasonality. Infections in marine mammals, wildlife and livestock have heightened concern for human-to-human transmission and pandemic potential. Contact tracing and self-isolation are used as public health measures in the UK to manage contacts of confirmed human cases of avian influenza. In this study, we aimed to estimate potential outbreak sizes and evaluate the effectiveness of contact tracing and self-isolation in managing community outbreaks of H5N1 following spillover from birds to people. We characterised contact patterns from an underrepresented agricultural population at high risk of avian influenza exposure through contact with birds (Avian Contact Study). Informed by these realistic social contact data, we modelled outbreak sizes using a stochastic branching process model. Most simulations resulted in small-scale outbreaks, ranging from 0 to 10 cases. When the basic reproduction number was 1.1, contact tracing and self-isolation reduced the average outbreak size from 41 cases (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 37–46 cases) to 7 cases (95% CI: 6–8 cases), preventing, on average, 8 out of every 10 infections. However, controls became less effective in reducing the outbreak size when a higher proportion of cases were asymptomatic. Overall, our findings suggest that contact tracing and self-isolation can be effective at preventing zoonotic infections. Increasing awareness, encouraging self-isolation, and detecting asymptomatic cases through routine surveillance are important components of zoonotic infection containment strategies.

Source: 

Link: https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0005463

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Serological and viral #prevalence of #Oropouche virus (OROV): A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2000–24 including #human, #animal, and #vector #surveillance studies

 

Abstract

Background

Oropouche virus (OROV) is an emerging arbovirus primarily transmitted by biting midges and is increasingly recognized as a public health threat in Central and South America. With over 11,000 confirmed cases reported in 2024, a ten-fold increase from the previous year, its transmission dynamics and true burden remain poorly understood due to diagnostic challenges and fragmented surveillance systems.

Objective

This systematic review and meta-analysis (SRMA) synthesizes OROV prevalence data in humans and summarizes the available data for vectors and animal hosts sampled between 2000 and 2024 to provide updated estimates and identify key surveillance gaps.

Methods

We systematically searched Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, Medline, and LILACS for OROV seroprevalence and viral prevalence studies in human, insect, and animal populations, published up to September 12, 2024. The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42024551000). Studies were extracted in duplicate, and data were meta-analyzed using generalized linear mixed-effects models. Risk of bias was appraised using a modified Joanna Briggs Institute checklist.

Results

We included 71 articles reporting serological or viral prevalence of OROV across nine countries. Between 2000–2024, pooled human seroprevalence among individuals with febrile illness or suspected of Oropouche infection was 12.6% [95% CI 5.3-26.9%] across four South American countries and seroprevalence of 1.1% [95% CI 0.5-2.3%] was observed in asymptomatic groups. Viral prevalence among individuals with febrile illness or suspected of Oropouche infection was 1.5% [0.8-3.0%] across seven South American countries and Haiti. Most studies used convenience sampling and RT-PCR or hemagglutination assays. In vector populations, positive OROV prevalence in Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus was reported in two of 18 sources, while 10.0% and 7.5% animal host prevalence was reported in dogs and cattle, respectively. We found high risk of bias in 11.3% of studies in our critical appraisal, with most animal, human, and vector studies falling in the moderate risk of bias range.

Conclusions

Despite rising numbers of OROV reported cases, prevalence estimates remain limited by sparse surveillance and variable methodology. This review highlights the urgent need for standardized serological assays, community-based studies, and expanded surveillance in animal and vector reservoirs. A One Health approach is essential to monitor OROV transmission and inform regional preparedness efforts.

Source: 

Link: https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0013340

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#Pathobiology of Highly Pathogenic Avian #Influenza A #H5N1 Clade 2.3.4.4b Virus from #Pinnipeds on Tyuleniy Island in the Sea of #Okhotsk, #Russia

 

Abstract

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b has recently emerged as a major threat to wildlife, agriculture, and public health due to its expanding host range and the increasing frequency of spillover into mammals. In July–August 2023, the mass death of over 3500 northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) and at least one Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) was recorded on Tyuleniy Island in the Sea of Okhotsk, Russia. Two HPAI A(H5N1) viruses were isolated from fur seal carcasses and designated A/Northern_fur_seal/Russia_Tyuleniy/74/2023 and A/Northern_fur_seal/Russia_Tyuleniy/75/2023. Both viruses exhibited high pathogenicity in chickens (IVPI 2.7–3.0) and mice (MLD50 1.9–2.5 log10EID50/mL), with distinct differences in disease progression, histopathology, and organ tropism. Experimental infection of mice revealed that strain A/74/2023 induced more severe pulmonary and neurological lesions than A/75/2023. Whole-genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated close relatedness to HPAI H5N1 strains circulating in the Russian Far East and Japan from 2022 to 2023, with several mutations associated with mammalian adaptation, including NP-N319K and, in one isolate, PB2-E627K. According to our findings, northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) on Tyuleniy Island acted as spillover hosts for the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus of clade 2.3.4.4b. Furthermore, the high population density of fur seals and the extensive mortality observed during the outbreak highlight these animals’ potential role as another vessel for the evolution of avian influenza viruses. This study represents the first documented case of HPAI H5N1 in pinnipeds in the North Pacific region and supports previous reports indicating that pinnipeds, including northern fur seals, are highly susceptible to HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b viruses.

Source: 

Link: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/18/1/51

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#Coinfection of #SARS-CoV-2 and #Influenza: A Catastrophic Coexistence

 

Abstract 

SARS-CoV-2 is a major global public health burden associated with significant morbidity, mortality, and complications, including respiratory, cardiovascular, neurological, and digestive disorders. COVID-19 may induce venous and arterial thromboembolic complications, including deep vein thrombosis, myocardial infarction and cerebral infarction. Simultaneous myocardial and cerebral infarction, termed cardio-cerebral infarction, is exceedingly rare. There is only limited case of concurrent cardio-cerebral infarction in patients with COVID-19. Although there is no standard treatment for the condition, antiplatelet and anticoagulation agents should be used. We emphasize the catastrophic coexistence of concurrent cardio-cerebral infarction in a patient co-infected with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A. We described a 75-year-old woman was admitted for SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A coinfection. She received anti-viral agent treatment for the virus infection. The patient presented with right side limbs weakness and declined consciousness. The magnetic resonance imaging of brain revealed acute cerebral infarction over the left corona radiata and basal ganglion. Meanwhile, acute myocardial infarction was diagnosed using electrocardiogram and elevated cardiac enzymes. Percutaneous coronary intervention and dual-antiplatelet agents were applied for the arterial thrombosis. The patient survived and recovered with mild residual hemiparesis. In addition, this is the first reported case of concurrent cardio-cerebral infarction in patients with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A coinfection. Coinfection with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A is associated with more complications including thromboembolic complications. Management of concurrent cardio-cerebral infarction poses challenges, as timely intervention is critical to prevent disability or death, yet aggressive anticoagulation risks hemorrhagic complications. Optimal treatment strategies remain unclear, highlighting the need for further research. This case underscores the importance of vigilance in managing thrombotic complications in patients with SARS-CoV-2 and influenza coinfection. Despite the downgrading of the COVID-19 pandemic, clinicians must remain alert to complex presentations caused by coinfections with respiratory viruses.

Source: 

Link: https://www.dovepress.com/coinfection-of-sars-cov-2-and-influenza-a-catastrophic-coexistence-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

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Rapid #risk #assessment, acute event of potential public health concern: #Chikungunya virus disease, #Global (#WHO, Dec. 29 '25, summary)

 

Overall Risk statement

-- This RRA aims to assess the overall public health risk at the global level posed by the chikungunya virus (CHIKV) transmission during 2025, considering the criteria of potential risk for human health, the risk of geographical spread, and the risk of insufficient control capacities with available resources, and the implications for the 2026 transmission season. 

-- Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) poses a significant and growing global health risk due to large and widespread regional outbreaks in recent years, climate-driven mosquito expansion, lack of specific treatment, and increasing international travel. 

-- While mortality remains relatively low, the CHIKV infection can cause prolonged arthritis with disability as well as  severe illness in some patients. 

-- From 1 January to 10 December 2025, 502 264 CHIKV disease cases including  208 335 confirmed cases, and 186 CHIKV deaths, were reported globally. 

-- While certain WHO Regions are reporting lower case numbers compared to 2024, others are experiencing marked increases, furthermore some countries are seeing an emergence of chikungunya in previously unaffected populations. 

-- This heterogeneity in regional trends complicates the interpretation of the global situation. 

-- The data suggest localized resurgence or emergence in specific geographic areas. 

-- The region of the Americas has reported the highest number of confirmed cases followed by the European region (comprised of cases reported predominantly from French Overseas Departments in the Indian Ocean). 

-- Further, the potential for geographic spread remains substantial given that chikungunya can be introduced into new areas by infected travellers where local transmission may be established in the presence of competent Aedes mosquito, a susceptible population and favorable climatic and ecological conditions.  

-- The global public health risk posed by CHIKV transmission is assessed as moderate, driven by widespread outbreaks across multiple WHO regions during the 2025 season including areas with previously low or no transmission. 

-- The resurgence and emergence of cases in new geographic areas are facilitated by the presence of competent Aedes mosquito vectors, limited population immunity, favorable environmental conditions, and increased human mobility. 

-- The uneven distribution of cases complicates global interpretation, but highlights significant localized transmission. 

-- Control capacities remain challenged by gaps in surveillance, diagnostic access, healthcare infrastructure, and sustainable vector surveillance and control.  

-- Given the ongoing outbreaks reported globally in 2025, the potential for further spread in 2026 cannot be ruled out. 

(...)

Source: 

Link: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-rapid-risk-assessment---chikungunya-virus--global-v.1

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Madonna at the Fountain, Jan van Eyck (1439)

 

Public domain.

Source: 

Link: https://www.wikiart.org/en/jan-van-eyck/madonna-at-the-fountain-1439

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